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(delwedd F1166) (tudalen 217)
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SKETCH
OF CORNISH GRAMMAR
The grammatical sketch of the language which
is here appended is the substance of the numerous
observations jotted down during the translation of
the Ordinalia, which the translator found indis-
pensable for the prosecution of his task. After a
good deal of the work was printed he was induced
to arrange his notes in some order, for the purpose
of adding them to the book as an appendix, and by
doing this he found himself empowered to see fur-
ther into the structure of the language than he
anticipated, and to understand many passages
which he had left as unintelligible ; he discovered
regularity in many gases where he had supposed
that all was disorder, and found that much of the
apparent confusion arose from the entire absence of
any system of orthography.
From the way in which this essay was compiled,
it is obvious that all illustrations of rules given in
it are drawn from the work before the reader, ex-
cept only in the very few cases where the Mount
Calvary has furnished data for completing the evi-
dence which the Ordinalia would have left imper-
fect. It is also a consequence of this way of pro-
ceeding that a form or a construction of frequent
occurrence is often elucidated by a single example,
while a rarer case will be furnished with several
instances in proof, perhaps all that the compiler
could find; in the former case there could be no
vol. n. L
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(delwedd F1167) (tudalen 218)
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218
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
reason for hesitation, and consequently no motive
for accumulating evidence; in the latter, infre-
quency produced doubt, which could not be re-
moved without collating all the cases in point.
It is necessary to bear in mind that, during the
whole work of translation, the process has been
tentative. The translator fully acknowledges the
valuable aid he has received from the grammar of
Lhuyd and the vocabulary compiled by Tonkin,
which appeared under the name of Pryce ; without
them he could have done nothing; but he must
say that his suspicion of the accuracy of these suds,
of the vocabulary especially, was continually on the
increase ; and that until he had found a word justi-
fied by frequent repetition and obvious congruity,
he never felt confident in the value affixed to it,
unless it were corroborated by Welsh or Armoric
analogy.
The Grammar was xnofe satisfactory, but it was
chiefly based on the practice of jPorniph as spoken
in Lhuyd's day, a diajeqt which had losj, much of
the character of the old language in which the best
monuments were written ; it was also slightly mo-
dified by the habit of the author, who unconsciously
deviated now and then into the forms of his native
Welsh.
After these observations, the compiler believes
he may offer this Essay as a useful help to a
reader of Cornish ; he is quite conscious that it is
incomplete, but he trusts that what is included in it
will not be found inaccurate.
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(delwedd F1168) (tudalen 219)
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LETTERS—
VOWELS. 219
§.1. LETTERS,
The prthography of the manuscripts is so irre-
gular, th$t it is quits impracticable, in a gram-
matical essay, to fplloyy it into all its varieties ; we
find every word of any length written in frftlf a
dozen forms, such as tfiuath, tfeweffi, dyweth,
devythj dyvyth, diweth, $c. &c. ; and so short a
word as kig is found under the forms of kyg 9 Jcyc,
kic, cyk, an4 probably more. It appears advisable
in this sketch to keep Jbo one form only, and the
one selected will be fh$t which most commonly
occurs; jf this be doubtful, then the form most
analogous to the Welsh or Breton. TJie writer of
the Dramas was guided merely by his ear, which
was yariable, and in addition tQ this, he was un-
decided whether l^e should follow the English or
Welsh sounds of the letters. Very frequently too
the handwriting is uncertain ; and nothing but a
knowledge of the language will enable a reader to
distinguish between c $nd t, u and n, b and v, and
some others.
For this reason it seenis most expedient first to
give a list of the soujijis pf the language, and then
to shew how they are expressed in the manu-
scripts ; to adopt, as above stated, one form only,
but in quotations, Jo follow the original spelling in
all its variety.
f 2. Vowels.
The vowel sounds were a, e, i, o, w, and aw.
The last was like our a in ' all/ a sound hardly
L 2
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(delwedd F1169) (tudalen 220)
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220
CORNISH GRAMMAS.
known in most European tongues; the others as
in Italian.
A, as in ' father/ is always made by a in the MS.
E, as in 'there/ always bye. /, as our ee, is gene-
rally written y, rarely t, and now and then e, espe-
cially in the pronoun my, which is often written
me, no doubt from the influence of English ortho-
graphy ; in this grammar y is used. and u are
generally so written. Aw is, I think, always
written o.
Lhuyd, who wrote when the language was spoken,
adopted a turned upside down to express the sound
of aw ; he thus wrote mvz where we find mos. We
have has, 1 $%, " a duck/' which he would have
written hoz; it is hoet in the ancient vocabulary,
and those who spelled the word by ear wrote hawz;
see Pryce, voc. hoet. It does not appear that aw
and o were etymologically distinguished, any more
than the vowels in the English words fall and hot ;
and as in the majority of cases it would now be
difficult to decide which sound was used, no attempt
is made here tQ represent it by a distinct character.
§. 3, The vowels are liable to a modification
which the Germans, after Grimm, call " umlaut ;"
a change which brings the different syllables of a
word into harmony with each other. It is defined
as an inflection of a, 0, and t*, in the radical syl-
lable of a word, caused by the influence or attrac-
tion of an i or u in a subsequent servile syllable
expressed or understood ; a becoming e, becom-
ing 0, (the French eu) and u becoming u (the
French u). It is such an influence which makes
feci out off ado in Latin, and feet, men, and elder,
out of foot, man, old, in English. In Cornish this
law was strictly observed, though the unsettled or-
thography produced much irregularity in its ex-
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(delwedd F1170) (tudalen 221)
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VOWELS.
221
pression. I think the following rule will conveni-
ently shew its practical operation: — whenever a
word with a or e for its final vowel (and sometimes
the influence reaches a preceding vowel) receives
by grammatical change the addition of a syllable
whose vowel is i (y) or m, the a becomes e or y 9
and the e becomes y : thus from car, " to love/' is
made kyrys, " loved," R 89a, and kyrreugh, " ye
love," O 543 ; from taw, " to be silent/' comes
teweugh, " be ye silent/' R 669, and tywyn, " we
are silent/' R 2527 : from gwel, " to see," gwylsyn,
" we saw," R 807 : from guas, " a lad," guesyon,
" lads," D 1299. The letter e, in fact, is neutral,
and may stand either for a or y: thus we find
kerry, D 2240, kyrry, O 537, or kyry, D 1289,
" tbou mayest love ;" lavaraf, O 7, or levaraf,
O 1653, " I 8a y-" Even English words receive the
same modifications; as from handle, D 3194, we
have hyndlyf, R 153 J. and u sometimes re-
main unaltered, but are more commonly changed to
e; as from dan/on, " to send," danfeneugh, " send/'
R1594; from torr, "to break," der*, "will break," O
2184; from cottf, "to speak," keus, "speaks," D1676;
from curene^ " to crown," D 2064, we find kerenys,
O 2381, kerunys, O 2391, and kurenys in a variant
reading of O 2374 ; the difficulty of distinguishing
e from in the manuscript will not let me cite
koroneugh of O 2347 as a still further change ;
arlufh, "lord/' makes in the plural arlythy, D
1900.
I do not find that a termination in a changes a
root with a vowel y ; from pys, " to pray," we have
pysaf, "I pray," O 1390.
a In some former state of the language this form must
have had a final t; it still remains in the Irish verb.
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(delwedd F1171) (tudalen 222)
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222
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
§.4. Consonants.
The consonantal sounds are 6, d, th (as in ' the'),
/, g hard, g soft, h 9 k, I, m, n, p, r, s, sh, ch, t, th
(as in 'think'), v, w, wh, *. Of these sounds b, d,f
h, l y m, n, p 9 r, s, t, are written in the MSS; regu-
larly with the letters- above given;
Th, as in the English ' the, 1 is always so writteri
in the manuscript of the Ordinalia. It is the
aspirate form of d, and in Welsh is? made by dd ;
in the British Museum MS. of Mount Calvary,
and in the Bodleian MS. of the Creation, written
in j6iij it is made by a character not unlike 3;
those who wrote Cornish in its last days repre-
sented the sound by dh 9 and in the very ancient
Cornish vocabulary the same combination is used ;
for example, in the wofd medhec, " a physician."
The Armoric equivalent is z. I would have written
dh in this grammar, if I had always been sure of
distinguishing the two sounds of th, but as this is
not the case, I write th; a mistake seems of less
consequence when indicated by a mere dot ; and
moreover this form is a smaller departure from the
orthography of the Ordinalia. But I have no doubt
that I have often omitted the dot when it ought
to be inserted.
Q 9 as in ' gold/ is so written in the* MSS. Lhuyd
used the Saxon 5 to distinguish this sound from the
following. It is now and then irregularly employed
as an initial instead of d, as in gey(h, "a day,"
39, instead of dyth, O 49.
Q soft, as in ' gentle/ is not a genuine Cornish
letter, but a simple corruption of s ; we thus find
pygy, " to pray," and gage, " to leave," instead of
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(delwedd F1172) (tudalen 223)
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CONSONANTS.
223
pysy and gase. It is like the vulgarism of squeege
for squeeze. Lhuyd sometimes used dzh for this
sound, a clumsy but accurate representation. I
have no occasion to mention the sound in this
essay.
H is etymologically equivalent to the Welsh ch ;
it is the aspirate form of k. Colon, " heart," be-
comes holon, O 2135, and cowethes, "a compan-
ion/' becomes howethes, 113^ When final, it is
almost always made by gh, as in levereugh, " you
say/' D 781, the Welsh hfarwch.
K is made in the MSS., as in English, by c be-
fore consonants and a, a, and u, and by k before e,
t, and y. Thus car, "he loves,* caradow, "be-
loved,'" O 1114, kerry % "thou lovest," O 2142;
cref, " strong," D 2539, 2222. Now and then
we find irregularities in this usage ; as in cemeres
for kemeres, O 1 1 23 ; krev for cref, 687 ; cm for
ken, D 1 994.
There appears to be a trace of the Welsh aspi-
rate II, if I am right in supposing Behethhn,
O 2588, to be Bohellan ; to this I was led by the
equivalent Beheath-land, given in Pryce's list of
Cornish villages ; thl might be an attempt to re-
present the peculiar sound of the Welsh IL
I have seen no trace of the curious change of m
and n to 6m and dru, the latter of which is so com-
mon in names of places in Cornwall, and in the
more recent MS. of the ' Creation/ It must have
crept in between 1450 and 1600, though it may
have existed in speaking at an earlier date.
The sound of 8 was probably like that of the
English 8, varying to that of z when between
vowels, as in ' rose/ It is this last sound which I sup-
pose to be occasionally corrupted to g, as mentioned
before. Sh occurs in English words only, and is
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(delwedd F1173) (tudalen 224)
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S24
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
written sch or sh; see sheft, O 2494, tchapys,
256a.
Th, as in 'think/ is always so written in this
Grammar; it is the aspirate form of t, as (h is of d.
The frequent use of th instead of 8 shews that
the sound was not so definite as in English ; we
have grath, O 6, instead of gras, " grace ; fath
for the English face, 141 a; catvys, R405, and
cowyth, R 410 ; sacrijyth, 1519, and sacryfys,
O 1493. I Q Natharet, D 301, for Nazareth, the
?A is probably intended. The equivalent sound has
become a pure sibilant in Armoric, and is written z.
Ch is an English sound, and is used in words
borrowed from English, as chacys, "chased/ 9 O
706; cherite, "charity,** O 178a; cher, "cheer/*
D 1824; chyf, "chief," O 2331. The sound must
have occurred in one genuine Celtic word cAy,
" a house," which is written with a t in all other
Celtic languages. Ty is found in the ancient vo-
cabulary, but I think chy everywhere else* In D
334, if ow thy be the true reading, we have a
genuine case of ty with the proper mutation ; but
the difficulty of distinguishing from t renders it
uncertain. Ch frequently occurs in the ancient
vocabulary where k is intended.
The sound of v is generally represented by that
letter, but it is also found not unfrequently ex-
pressed by f, as in Welsh ; unmistakeable instances
of this arefenyyough, "ye bless," D z6^6\fynnaf y
" I will," D 2496 ; ynjrasy " greatly," R 1098.
W appears to have had the English sound ; it is
not unfrequently confounded with u, particularly
after g.
Wh represents the Welsh chw, but it is often
confounded with w; as in whylly, D 2101, wylly,
O 745, "thou mayest see."
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(delwedd F1174) (tudalen 225)
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MUTATIONS
OF CONSONANTS. 225
The consonantal sound of y is made usually by t,
and sometimes by a character frequently read z,
but certainly sounded y. We have such a character
in old English MSS., where we find zoung, zear,
zou ; it is often so printed in transcripts, but the
propriety of so transcribing is doubtful.
Z is not written, but is represented by *, as men-
tioned before. In one case alone have I found it,
O 2358 ; see the note on that line.
§. 5. Mutations of Consonants.
In all the Celtic languages, many of the conso-
nants at the beginning of a word suffer changes
according to fixed rules, under certain grammatical
or euphonic conditions. In most of these changes
the Cornish coincides with the Welsh, in a few it
is more like the Armoric ; the fourth form, or nasal
change of the Welsh, is unknown. The surds p,
k, and t, hare each two mutations, or three forms ;
the sonants b, g, and d have one mutation, or two
forms a ; m has the same change as 6. The other
letters are not subject to change.
The writers on Welsh grammar have given vari-
ous names to these several forms : what one writer
calls the soft form another calls light ; the same is
named aspirate by one and nasal by the other. I
therefore propose to call the radical letter the first,
and the two mutations, the second and the third
forms, as all are agreed upon the order in which
they come. When I wish to designate the form
which ought to follow any given word, I shall occa-
a The sonants have a second mutation, which will be no-
ticed presently ; but it is a return to the surd form, and is
not of the nature of the other changes. I would call it
negative.
*3
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(delwedd F1175) (tudalen 226)
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226
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
sionally put a little numeral over the word by way
of abbreviation ; writing for example our 3 , " my,"
and y a , " his," to shew that the initial consonant of
the words following these possessive pronouns must
take the respective forms which the figures point
out.
The changes of the surd letters are precisely
those of the so-called tenues to media and aspirate
in Greek grammar ; as ir, p, <f>, &c. In Cornish
these are p, b,f; £, g, h; t, d, th. In the sonant
letters the one change is to what we may call the
aspirate sonant: 6 becomes v (6A), d becomes th
(dh), and g might have been, by analogy, made gh,
with a guttural sound, perhaps like that of the
Greek digamma ; but as gh was already employed
for the aspirate of o when final* and as moreover the
aspirate gh has in most languages shewn a ten-
dency to disappear, the g in this state is either left
out altogether, or changed to Wj and more rarely
to why as in D 2156. In the same instances the
Welsh omits the <?, and the Bretons write c'h, un-
less a w follow the g, in which case g is omitted, as
in Welsh. M, like 6, becomes v. In the sonant
letters the third form is like the first.
In accordance with the above described muta-
tions, we may form the following table : —
I
* &
p
B F
K
G H
T
D Th
B
V B
G
W, or nothing G
D
Th D
M
V M
The cases of mutation will appear in the gram-
mar, but a few examples are here given t —
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(delwedd F1176) (tudalen 227)
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MUTATION
OF CONSONANTS. 227
OvPfehas (pehas), " my sins," O 2257 ; y 2 das
(tow), " his father," O 2740 ; y 2 vam (mam), " his
mother," O 2740; aga* threys (treys), "their
feet/' O 760; ou? banneth, "my blessing," O
2168 ; y 2 vohvogeih (bolnogeth), " his will," O 2352;
the 2 wovyn (govyn), " to ask," D 2667 \ the ase
(gase), " to leave," D 2035. Once I find ch changed
to g : fhe gy (chy\ " thy house * 1018.
The sonants 6, g, d, are also subject to take the
surd forms of p, k, t ; this initial mutation is un-
known to the Welsh tongue, but it is found in
Armoric ; Zeuss has named it protection. I mark
the words with ° which produce this change. Ex-
amples are, ow qaerthe (jguerthe), " selling," D
1520; a pe (be), "if it were," R 1662 ; ou tos
(dos), " coming/' 1651 J mar krUge (grage), " if I
do," D 875 ; ynta (da), " well," D 1905. We have
the singular form an Jysky (guysky) } " striking,"
1685.
In Cornish, as ill Welsh and Armoric, the /suffers
no change. It seems however that in the latest
days of the existence of the language, a mutation
was made like that of b and m. Lhuyd mentions
an vordh, "the way," from forth, p. 241, as well
as a more peculiar change to h in the oblique case,
as a'n hloh, " of the child," frorti fldh, p. 242. I
have not seen a trace of Such mutations in the
manuscript.
In the Armoric, s is regularly changed to z. I
have found only one case of the change ; it occurs
in 2358.
Observe generally that the mutations are often
neglected in the manuscripts, and nothing must be
concluded from their absence. This is also the case
with ancient Welsh, Breton, and Irish writings,
though the practice is now to insert them regularly
*7 *"^ji^
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(delwedd F1177) (tudalen 228)
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228
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
in every instance. It is most probable that they
were always used in speaking* however the writer
may have neglected to spell in accordance with the
pronunciation.
§. 6. ARTICLES.
The definite Article is an (en) for all numbers
and genders ; as, an myghtem, " the king," R 104;
an venen, " the woman,"" D 516 ; an porthow, " the
gates," R 98. When it is in connection with a
preceding word ending tfith a vowel/ the article
usually loses its own vowel, and the? n is added to
the preceding word. In this work the n is divided
by an apostrophe, which is not found in the manu-
scripts.
The article has no inflection, but the Cases are
made by prepositions: as en tas ka'n map ha'n
spyrys, " the Father and the Son and the Spirit/ 1
4 : an mor ha'n tyryow y " the sea and the lands/'
26 : fhe'n tas, " to the Father " D 626 : a 9 n nef,
u from the heaven," O 13*9: war an kunys,
" upon the wood," O 1333 : fhe'n dor, " to the
ground," O 1448.
The indefinite article is un for both genders ; it
is rarely used. Ex. Un map, "a son," O639;
worth un venen, " to a woman, 1 ' O 419.
§.7. SUBSTANTIVES.
In Cornish, as in the other Celtic languages, a
substantive is either masculine or feminine : the
chief, though not the only grammatical distinction,
between masculine and feminine, is the change of
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(delwedd F1178) (tudalen 229)
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SUBSTANTIVES.
229
an initial consonant, when mutable, to one of the
second class, in a feminine substantive of the sin-
gular number. Examples are : un venen (benen),
"a woman," 419 ; an venen, D516; an dre
(tre), "the town," 2382; an wefhen (gwefheri),
"the tree," O 201; an bous (pous), "the robe,"
R 1 92 1-4. The same change distinguishes the
gender of an adjective used substantively ; as, an
casadow, m. 21 19; an gasadow, f. O 2691,
" the hated person."
Males and females have sometimes names of dif-
ferent origin, as den, " a man^" beneni " a woman ;"
in many cases the name of the female differs from
that of the male by the addition of es / as arlufh,
"lard," D 1957, arlofhes, " lady," D 1 965 ; py-
stryor, " a wizard, " D 1767, pestryores, "a witch,'"
2668 ; cowyth, " a male companion/* 2043,
cowethes, u a female companion," 92 ; maw 9 " a
boy/' D 1794, mowes, "a girl," D 1876.
§. 8. Plural,
The plural number has many forms ; one of the
commonest ends in ow : the Welsh au, Breton ou.
A few examples follow : —
tassow, fathers, 1409 from tas, O 1.
dornow, hands, D 1390 . . dorn, R 2178.
roow, gifts, O 2314, 2598 . . ro, O 2467.
fosow, walls, O 2320 . . fos, O 2281.
scovornow, ears, D 136 1 .. scoforn, D 1 144.
kentrow, nails, D 2698 . . kenter, D 2676.
dewow, gods, O 2692 . . deu, O 2564.
lyfryow, books, D 78, 101 . . levyr, D 1157.
enevow, souls, D 144 . . enef, D 1753,
trevow, towns, D 132 . . tre (Welsh, tref.)
tyryow, lands O 26 . . tyr 9 D 392.
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(delwedd F1179) (tudalen 230)
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330
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
A very common termination for plurals of per-
sonal words is tan : Welsh ion, Breton ien. These
generally change the final vowel : —
Mebyon, tons, O 1038 from map, R 933.
guetyon, fellows, D 1299 . . gutu, R 1824.
yefhewon, Jews, D 3013 . . yethow, D 2003.
m«rr W <m,kiiighte,pi6i3 1 mafrek> Q
marrouggyon, do. O 1639 /
Some adjectives used as substantives take the
same form : —
kefyon, wise persons, D 1026 "I from ' Q
cttfyon, D 1075 J
gueryon, true men, D 1305 from guyr, R 977.
Also some common nouns : —
prevyon, reptiles, O 1160.
govegyon, sorrows, D 1062.
empynyon, brains, D 2120.
marthogyon, wonders, O 2546.
We have also laddron, "thieves," D 2255,
lad&\ D 1174.
Many plurals end in y : this form is also fo
in Welsh and Armoric, but not so frequently :
ysyly, limbs, Di733»
esely . . O 2735.
mowysy, maids, D 944. mowes, D 1876.
anfugy t sins? D 1473. anfus, D 1501.
prqfugy, prophets, D 1480. profits, D 1465.
servysy, servants, O 235.
guy thy sy, guards, O 2038.
arlyfhy, lords D 1900. arluth, D 393.
mestrygy, masters D 1711.-1 mmUrDl1 ^ w
mestrigi, .. D 1647. J
In some words the plural is the stem, and the
singular adds the syllable en, which is here an indi-
vidualizing particle.
■in
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(delwedd F1180) (tudalen 231)
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SUBSTANTIVES.
281
delete a leaf, deyl, leaves, O 254 ; also dylyow, O 777.
grygkonen, a spark, D 3717, guryghon, sparks, D 2101.
gueien, a rod, 1444, gueel, rods, O 1957.
guefhen, a tree, O 186, gueyfh, trees, O 28.
luhesen, a flaih of lightning, R 293, luhes, lightnings,
R296.
In Armoric, nouns denoting the condition of men,
as well as names of animals, form their plural by
adding ed. In Cornish the d has become 8 as
usual, and more tfarely th :—
eleth, angels, R 190 from el, ll ^87.
benenes, women, O 2247 . . benen t O 256.
Mies, children, O 1036 1 - , n ,
JfeAo*, O 1031 ; jlefhas, D 1924 J
abesteleth, apostles, R 893.
bredereth-, brethren. D 714 i ,, ^
brudereth, .. .. D 1430J
puskes, fishes, O 43 . . py«ft, O 139.
Aes/es, beasts, O 312 . . best, O 798.
syUyes, eels, O 136.
Many words hare plurals formed by a change of
vowel only ; this is evidently the umlaut, the Cor-
nish application of which is described in §. 3. Thus
we have
trys, D 835, treys, D 2937* feet, from trous, D 860,
tros, D 2781.
meyn, stones, D 62 from men, D 321 1.
breder, brothers, R1163 .. broder, O 525.
deves, sheep* O 1065 .. daves, O 127.
mergh, horses* 1065 . . margh, O 124.
tel, holes, D 3*74 t » tol, D 3170.
escarn, bones, O2743I «,com, R 2598.
y«caro, D 3 X 73 J
Some end in n : —
knen, dogs, R 172 from ky, R 2026.
lysten, cloths, O 808.
hynwyn, names O 135 from hanwo, R 1669.
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(delwedd F1181) (tudalen 232)
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232
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
Words from the English generally take s in the
plural : —
persons,
owners,
no,
D 1627,
persons,
honours.
scryptours,
dortours,
D 1673,
D 1636,
scriptures,
doctors.
syres,
D 1471,
sirs.
skorgys, whyppys, D 3056, scourges, whips.
chaynys, D 3060, chains.
§.9. What the Welsh and Breton grammarians
call the dual number, viz. a compound of the nu-
meral with the noun, used only in the case of parts
of the body which are double, is common in Cornish.
Example: — dyulef, D 2375, dule 9 D 2163, "the
hands," from luef, " hand," D 2755 ; dywscoth, D
3068, duscoth, D 2583, " the shoulders/' from
scouth, D 658 ; dywvregh, D 3 1 59, " the arms,'' from
bregh, D 2753 ; dewlagas, " the eyes," D. 396 ;
dewlyn, O1196, deuglyn, D. 247, "the knees,*
&c. &c.
When such parts of the body are mentioned as
belonging to more than one person, a plural is
used, as dornow, " hands," D 1390 ; also lagasow,
R T492, " the eyes" of two men.
§. 10. Cases.
With the exception of the genitive, all the cases
are formed, as in English, by prepositions; as,
tlie vyghtern David, " to king David," 1929 ; yn
Araby, " in Arabia," O 1930 ; a'n pen, u from the
head," D 1743; a dre, "from home," O 2172;
tMn tas, "to the father," 2619.
The genitive of attribution, such as might be
rendered by an adjective, is, I think, usually made
by a 2 ; as, Arlufh a ras, " Lord of grace," R 767,
i. e. gracious Lord ; Tas a nef, " Father of heaven,"
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(delwedd F1182) (tudalen 233)
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SUBSTANTIVES.
233
" heavenly Father ;" myghtem a g alios, a king of
power/' R 834, powerful king. This is also the
form of an ablative case ; as, a'y fhywle, " from his
hands/' D3153. But the ordinary genitive is made
by apposition only, always following the chief sub-
stantive ; as, myghtem yefhewcm, " King of the
Jews," D 1998 ; mab dm, " Son of man," 1 950 ;
coys Penryn, " wood of Penryn," 2589 ; laves
den, " tongue of man/' 76?. Sometimes the
genitive suffers a mutation for no reason that I am
aware of, as, pen vys (mys), " the end of a month,"
D 1646 ; pen vyghtemeth (myghtemeth), "head
of royalty," R 3 13.
I think I have been in error in printing the
genitive with the article tin instead of an. I did
not at first see the difference between the genitive
of attribution and the ordinary genitive, and there-
fore put a'n indiscriminately ; I now should write
deu a'n nef s " God of the heaven," 480, i. e.
" heavenly God/' but cusil an tas, " counsel of the
father," O 188.
§. 1 1 . One of the most interesting peculiarities
of the Cornish language, which distinguishes it
from the cognate Welsh and Armoric and connects
it with the Gaelic dialects, is the possession of a
really inflected genitive case formed by internal
vocalic change, of precisely the same nature as the
Irish genitive. It is true that I find no example of
this genitive in the ancient Manuscripts, but it cer-
tainly existed in the modern Cornish a century
and half ago, when Lhuyd wrote his Archseologia
Britannica. The passage shewing this case is found
at p. 242, and I quote it here :
" They used formerly, and do yet in several
words, a variation of vowel (whether the first or
the only one) in the genitive case, &c.
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(delwedd F1183) (tudalen 234)
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234
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
" Particularly a, I find changed into e ; as Mark,
A horse ; Rtn vefh, Horse mane ; Buzl verh, Horse
dung \ and e into i, y, or ey : as i/erA, A daughter ;
An vyrk, Of the daughter ; Pen, A head ; J?r dAa
6yn, Against thee* q. d. On thy head ; And Er
agas pyn huy> Against you ; Huil, Work ; Mein
hueyl, Work stones, or stones for Building ; Kris,
The midst ; In kreys an dre, In the midst of the
Town."
Now this is precisely the Oaelic genitive, as
found in the oldest Irish relics, and in the language
now spoken ; pyn, genitive of pen, is equivalent in
form and meaning to cinn, genitive of ceann ; mark,
genitive merh, is like clann, genitive clainn ; kris,
genitive kreys, is equal to tan, genitive tin.
In the compound preposition erbyn (from er pen),
" against," a trace of this change is found even in
Welsh, though the Welsh grammarians do not
notice it. Lhuyd was led to the discovery of the
nature of this compound preposition by finding its
parts separated in the Cornish manuscripts, and a
governed pronoun inserted between them, though
he says nothing of its analogy to his own language,
or to Irish. A Cornish man would say erbyn haf,
" against summer," 31, as it is in Welsh; but he
would say er owfyn, " against me," R 1919, 2573 ;
er fhe byn, " against thee," 1350; er y byn,
" against him," D 232 ; er agan pyn 9 « against us,"
D 1663 ; er agas pyn, " against you," D 180; and
er agafyn, " against them," P. 96. 4, with the re-
gular initial changes, shewing the nature of the
substantive.
The ancient Irish is perfectly analogous, though the
modern dialect does not appear to have retained it
so closely ; ar chenn, literally " to the head," means
" in front of," or " against ;" ar mo chiunn, is
"be-
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(delwedd F1184) (tudalen 235)
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SUBSTANTIVES.
286
fore me ;™ ar a chiunn, "before him ;" ar ar ckiunn,
"before us,™ &c. &c. See Zeuss, pp. 577 and 618.
I have dwelled on this genitive at greater length
than might seem called for, because it is the only
trace of a declension in the Cymric class of lan-
guages, and is decidedly opposed to the theory that
cases were developed in Gaelic after the separation
of the two families ; it impugns also the classification
which denies to the Cynfric the character of an
Indo-germanic tongue, on the grounds of the sup-
posed non-development of declension.
A substantive preceding another in the genitive
case never takes the article: as map deu, "the
Son of God,™ D 1951 ; bofh ow thas (tas), " the will
of my Father,™ R 1 $j ; gos ow holon (colon), " the
blood of my heart,™ R 166 ; gorfen beys, " the end
of the world," D 1704.
§.12. The dative case is formed by fA«*, or the
with the second form ; as the dre (tre), " to town,"
906 ; t he gyk (kyk\ « to flesh ;™ the woys (goys)>
" to blood," 66.
The ablative also takes the second form, as
a vaghtyth (maghtyth), " fronl a virgin," D 3027.
The vocative preceded by a personal pronoun or
by a, takes also the secoiid form : as, a vap (map),
" O son," 1336 ; a vam (mam), " mother,""
D 2949 ; ty venen (beneri), " thou woman," R 9 1 7 ;
ty vatfw (maow), "thou boy ; ™ O 2317.
§.13. Derivation of Substantives.
Abstract substantives are derived from adjectives
by adding ter after a sard consonant, and der after
other letters :
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(delwedd F1185) (tudalen 236)
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236
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
• Ex. dader, goodness, D 1396 from da, good.
guyrder, truth, O 173a . . gwyr, true »
guander, weakness, D 3618 . . guan, weak.
gender, coldness, D 1333 • . yen, cold.
gohwder, brilliancy, O 1413 • . gohw, light.
tekter, beauty, D 33 . • tek, beautiful.
whekter, sweetness, O 359 • • whek, sweet.
ufhekter, horror, D 2653 . . ufhyk, frightful,
R 3340, mfhek, O 798.
melder, sweetness, R 457 . . mel, honey.
Adjectives in *, anciently ending with t, recover
the t in becoming substantives ; as,
caletter, hardness, O 1524, from cedes, hard, O 1525,
D927.
goscotter, shelter, O 361, is the probable reading from
guskys, O 356, the Welsh gwasgod.
ponvotter, trouble, O 363, from ponvos, R 1327, but
these two examples are hardly regular, the roots
having rather the value of substantives.
Other abstract substantives take eth or neth*,
but their simpler form is more commonly a sub-
stantive : —
guyryoneth, truth,
D 3029 from guyryon, true men.
oosoleth, rest,
1725 ,. com/, 3073.
skentuleth, wisdom,
D 1809.
bolungeth, will,
D 2053.
myghterneth, royalty,
R 313 • • myghtern, a king.
folnethy folly,
R 961 . . fol, R 953, a fool.
gokyneth, stupidity,
D 1808 . . goky, 173, a fool.
muscoghnethy madness, D 1 990 • . muscok, crazed, D 961
gowegneth, falsehood,
R 906 . . gowek, a liar, R 55.
roweth, bounty,
884 . . ro, a gift, 2467.
Abstract substantives derived from verbs com-
monly end in ans : —
a Welsh and Armoric analogy would require eth, bat
Lhuyd wrote always eth. See his Grammar, p. 240.
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(delwedd F1186) (tudalen 237)
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SUBSTANTIVES.
237
crygyans, belief, D 1813 from
1 crygy.
gyvyans, forgiveness, D 1816 . .
gqfa.
dysquythyans, declaration, 1733 . .
dysquethya.
gorthyans, worship, 1738 ..
gorthe.
betonans, life, 848 \
beumens, . . 701 J " "
bewe, to live.
mernans, death, 1523 . .
marueL
syhoans, salvation, 1958 . .
sylwel.
sylwyans, .. R 2611.
trystyn$ 9 sadness, D 1013.
Arlotte8 t "a lordship/* D 16 14, is from arlufh,
"a lord;" wythres, ' f a work/' or thing made,
1069, 1853, from wyth, "the doing/' 2572,
D 3° 2 9> is analogous to the Welsh gwaith and
gweithred.
A substantive signifying a doer is sometimes
made by adding or to a verb or noun, as tyor, " a
tiler," 2486, from ty, " to cover," O 2475. See
also pystryor, "a wizard," D 1767, from pystry,
"sorcery/' D 1765.
In the ancient vocabulary several such names of
agency end in iad or iat. Similar forms become
in the dramas guy thy as, " a keeper/' O 692 ; syl-
vya8, "a saviour/' D 252, R 307.
We hare a termination va in powesva, " rest,"
O 145 ; cofva^ " remembrance," D 827, and dy-
wethva, "end," D 728.
It may be given as a rule without exception, that
words ending with t or d in Welsh or Breton, do,
if they exist in Cornish, turn t or d to 8 ; and this
whether genuine Celtic, or borrowed from Latin or
English; as, nans, "a valley;" goys, "blood;"
gwyls, " grass ;" guyns, " wind ;" ros, " net ;
pons, " bridge ;" fas, " father /* spyrys, " spirit,
corresponding with nant, gwaed, gwellt, gwynt,
rhwyd, pant, tad, yspryd.
•n
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(delwedd F1187) (tudalen 238)
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288
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
§.14. ADJECTIVES.
The adjective usually follows the substantive,
and if the latter be a feminine singular, the ad-
jective takes the secoijd form, when the initial is
mutable. Examples are, " gobar 6rcw, " great re*
ward," R 672; mar ruyth, " red sea," O 1622;
merkyl tele, " fair miracle," 1450 ; luef gleth
(cleth), «* left hand/ 1 D 2747 ; cusyl (ha (da),
•' good advice," 2802 ; benen vas (mas), " good
woman," R 1697. In guyr vres, " true judgment,' 1
D 515, and guyr gos K " true blood," D 1506, the
adjective precedes,
According to Lhuyd, p. 243, an adjective with y
for its vowel was made feminine by changing y to
e ; as, guyn, m. gum, f. " white ;" melyn> m. me-
len, f. "yellow." I do not know sufficiently the
genders of nouns, and adjectives are not of very
frequent occurrence, so that I have not noticed the
change ; but it is consistent with Welsh Grammar.
The comparative and superlative degrees both
end in a (e) without distinction ; as, brasa^ " great-
er," from bras, D 793; uhella, "highest" D
2189, from uhel, 805; or fe/fe, "more faith-
ful," 1 11 1, from lei The finals ch and /(ro),
which make a difference between the degrees in
Welsh and Armorfc, have disappeared in Cornish,
though in the last days of its existence Lhuyd added
an apostrophe or A to shew the comparative. The
adjective in these stages appears to come rather
before than after the substantive. Example: —
Uhella arlofh, " most high Lord." D 2189 ; gohye
den, "most foolish man," R1454; lacka mester,
" a worse master," D 2275 ; telle efhen, " more
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(delwedd F1188) (tudalen 239)
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NUMBERS,
239
faithful bird," 1 1 1 1 ; tekke alter, '* a fairer altar,"
1177 ; brasa g alios, " greatest power," J) 793 ;
guel guyn, " better wine," Q 19 14 ; but we find also
guyn guella, " best wine," 1904; dyllas gueUa,
" best clothes," D 256.
" Than" after a comparative is made by y$, e*, or
ages. Example : — whekke y% mel, " sweeter than
honey," R 144; moy es spencer, "greater than a
butler," D 80a ; teke ages kyns, " fairer than be-
fore," D 348.
Some comparatives appear to have no root ex-
tant ; as, guel or guella, " better ;" gueth, " worse,"
R 2026, and perhaps guetha, D1130; moy, O
1414 ; mogha, D 510 ; moghya, D 513 ; moghye,
D 514, " more or most," and perhaps a few more.
Adjectives are often made from substantives by
the addition of ek or yk. Examples are : —
gallosek, R 752, powerful, from gallos, O 1214.
wmek, D 2158, fearful, . . <wn, O 1452.
lowenek, R 1333, joyful, . , lowene, D 574.
marthusek R 1 176, wonderful, ,. martkys, O 756.
rnorethek, D 3187, mournful, . . moreth, O 358.
portfosyk, R 1256, troubled, .. poqfos, R 1327.
anfusyk, R 1520, mischievous, . . airfus, D 1501.
wfumsek, D 37, desirous, . . wkans, O 1806.
dyscrygyk, R 1369, incredulous, from the verb crygy,
to believe.
§.15. NUMBERS.
The following list of cardinal numbers is partly
from the Manuscripts, and where no authority is
cited, from the list published by Pryce ; the words
between brackets are intended as corrections of
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(delwedd F1189) (tudalen 240)
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240
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
the loose forms given in Pryce's list, made by the
analogies of Welsh and Araoric.
1. wi, D. 160, 446, with a substantive.
onan, O 3. pnon, R 1403, alone.
2. den, D 2577. dyw, 1690. dew, Q 315,.
3. fry, m. R 374, 870.
tyr, f. O 8*8. tyyr, f. O 1729, ter, f. D 147.
4. peswar, m. R 563.
pedyr, f. O 772.
S« PyW> D 505. |jym, R 867.
6. toAe, D 351.
7. seyth, O 599. syth, R 2494.
8. eafA, (eyth.)
9. note, R 661.
10. dek, D 574.
11. ednack, (unnek.)
12. dewfhek, D 228.
13. tardhak, trefhek.
14. puzwarthack, (peswarfhek.)
15. pymthek, P. 228, 1.
16. huettag, whettak, (whefhek.)
17. seitag, (seytek.)
18. eatap, (eythek.)
19. nawnzack, (naunfhek.)
20. tyanz, (u^ens.)
21. toofinan toar t?att*r, (onan tear ugens.)
30. <Wfc warnugens, D593. cfefc warnugans, D 1554*
40. cfet* tgren*, D 45. cfcn hugens, R 2437.
46. dew? thefts Aa wie, D 351.
' 50. dig ha duganz, {dek ha deugans)
or hanter cans, O 957.
60. tri igatiZy (try ugens), P 227, 3.
70. (try ugens ha dek.)
80. padgwar iganz, (peswar ugens.)
90. padgwar iganz ha d0k, (peswar ugens ha dek)
100. cans, D 596. can, R 515.
200. cfeio can*, O 657.
300. try cans, D 536. trey hans, O 1996.
fry hans, O 955.
500. joymp cans, D 505.
700. «y*A cans, R 2494.
900. nata cans, C. p. 142.
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(delwedd F1190) (tudalen 241)
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NUMBERS.
241
iooo. myl, D 212. R 348.
dek can, D 574.
500a pymp myl, P 227, 2,
7000. tyth myl, R 2494.
100,00a cans vyl, 1614.
1,000,000. myl vyl, R 132.
mylyon, R 2258.
It will be observed that the awkward composition
of numbers between ten and fifteen used in Welsh
is avoided in Cornish as it is in Armoric ; though
it is retained in numbers above twenty. The sin-
gular Welsh mode of making the numbers between
fifteen and twenty is unknown here. The Cornish
has retained the distinction of genders in the nu-
merals three and four, but in "two" it seems to
have been lost, though retained in Welsh and
Armoric.
We have the plural of myl in the Creation, p. 54,
may es millyow a bynsow, " more than thousands
of pounds."
Substantives following the numerals are put in
the singular number ; as, naw ahueflh " nine keys,"
R 661 ; deu ladar, " two thieves," D 2577 ; dew
ugens dyfh, "forty days," O 1027.
When numbers are compounded, the substantive
is placed after the first ; as, dew ugens blyfhen ha
whe, " forty and six years/' D 351.
Ordinal numbers, after the earlier ones, are
formed by adding ves to the cardinals; ves is
clearly the Armoric ved and Welsh fed; it may
have been a corruption of guyth, "a time/' in
Welsh gwaith.
ist. kensa, D 795.
2nd. secund, O 17.
nessa in Pryce's list.
3rd. tresse, O 25. trege, R 339. tryge, R452.
4th. peswere, O 33. pysvoere, D 2851.
5th. pympe8 y O 41.
VOL. n. M
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(delwedd F1191) (tudalen 242)
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S48
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
6th. wktfes, O 49.
7th. seytkves, O 144.
8th. eatkas, (eythves.)
9th. 1101009.
10th. degves, O 436.
All the rest have vas in the lists ; the analogy of
the Welsh and Armoric, and the seytkves of the
MS. for seithvas of the list, show ves to be the true
form.
§. 16. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
Personal pronouns may be practically considered
as indeclinable ; it is true that some of them have
two forms, but the second of these is not so much
that of an accusative case, as a changed form re-
quired by position in respect to its regimen ; in the
same way the French moi and toi are not so much
the accusative cases of je and tu, as the forms used
when they are less closely connected with a verb
than those called exclusively nominatives ; it is true
that je and tu are nominatives, and that moi and
toi are generally accusatives; but these are also
sometimes nominatives, and this is the case with
Cornish personal pronouns. These two forms I
would name the first and second states. When
personal pronouns follow certain particles ending
with vowels, they are abbreviated and otherwise
altered ; this I would call a third state : when con-
nected with a preposition, they are also abbre-
viated, but in a different way, which may be termed
PRONOUNS.
243
a fourth state. It will be more intelligible if all the
forms be put together in a table, to which it will be
convenient to add the possessive pronoun, because
the strictly personal pronouns sometimes put on the
possessive form.
i
2
3
4
P088e88
I
my, me
vy
'm
7,'m
ote 3
Thou
ty
*y>yy
9 d, >th
'8
the*
He
<f
efie
'n
'o
y2
She
hy
hy,y
'8
'y
y*
We
»y
ny
9 n
'n
agan
You
why
why
'•
'ugh
agas
They
y
y
1 '*
'e
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(delwedd F1192) (tudalen 243)
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ago?
When a personal pronoun is used alone, or when
it is the subject of a verb, it is put in the first
state: as,
my a vyn, I will, O 2283.
me re goskes, I have slept, R 51 1.
ha my ynno ef, and I in him, R 2387.
ty yu, thou art, R 751.
a ty lacob, O thou James, R 1007.
ty re toruk, thou hast done, O 2243.
ty ha'th wrek, thee and thy wife, D 685.
ef a vyn, he will, O 2427.
ef hag ol, he and all, D 636.
hy a torse, she would break, O 2174.
ny a $ n tregh, we will cut it, O 2533.
why a'npren, you shall pay it, R 621.
why loseUy you rogues, D 2589.
y a 9 n guanas, they pierced him, R 11 17.
Hy sometimes stands for the neuter, where in English
we should use * it;' as, Jcyns hy bosnos, "before it be
night," O 2769.
When the personal pronouns come after verbs,
they take the second state ; in most of the following
examples they come after imperatives : as,
gas vy, let me, O 2703.
guyth vy, preserve me, R 1564.
M 2
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(delwedd F1193) (tudalen 244)
|
844
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
{he naghe gy , to deny thee, R1156.
kychough ef, catch him, D 1007.
gorreugh ef, put him, R 2077.
synsew e, hold him, D 1086.
lafh e, kill him, D 2356.
hertheugh hy, thrust her, R 2295.
lafh ny, kill us, O 972.
na blamyowg ny t do net blame us, R 649.
gor y, put them, O 334.
gura y, make them, D 2674.
In the following examples they follow verbs used
as conditionals or subjunctives, or they are used by
way of emphasis, or perhaps merely from the neces-
sities of metre : as,
ny welafvy, I do not see, R 1962.
ma fhyllyfvy, that I go, R 182.
may fy the gy t that thou mayest be, O 1327.
prag y whruste sy, why didst thou? O 277.
may tebbro ef, that he may eat, O 200.
by 8 may cothe hy, until she fall, O 2718.
fatel wrussyn ny, how that we did, R 1341.
dun ny, let us go, O 2325.
ny wreugh why, ye do not, O 317.
mayfewg why, that ye may be, O 1163.
may fens y, that they may be, O 1833.
mayfons y, that they may be, O 2424.
When the personal pronoun is the object of a
verb in the indicative or subjunctive mood, in which
case the verb is usually preceded by a particle
ending with a vowel, the pronoun is abbreviated as
in the third column, and affixed to the particle,
making one word with it. In this book the particle
is separated from the pronoun by an apostrople for
the guidance of the reader, as is done in Welsh*
though no such division is found in the Manuscripts*
Examples : —
del y'm kyrry, as thou lovest me, O 2403.
aban y'm savoy as, since he healed me, O 1774.
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(delwedd F1194) (tudalen 245)
|
PRONOUNS.
245
me a'th cusyl, I advise thee, R 1 130.
my a'dpys, I pray thee, O 2521.
an laddron a'n dyalas, the thieves mocked him, R 1426.
ha re'n dros, and hast brought him, O 282.
my ny'n guylys, I did not see him, D 1286.
my a' 8 guysk, I will strike her, O 2709.
my a 9 s henotv, I name her, O 114.
hay a'n doro, and will bring us, O 225.
re'n sawye, may it save us, O 1088.
mar a 9 8 guel, if he see you, D 1003.
my d*8 gueres, I will cure you, O 2017,
me a*8 ygor, I will open them, R 638.
mar ny's cafaf, if I find them not, R 647.
komma re's holhas, she has washed them, D 520.
There is an indeterminateness about the pronouns
in this state, n signifying " him" as well as " us,"
and 8 belonging to three different persons; this
has probably led writers in most cases to take the
possessive forms, either directly or with some modi-
fication, in the first and second persons plural ; as,
ef a gan formyas, " he created us," R 2430 ; a
gan gruk, "who made us all," R 1975; y gen
lowenhaSy " he gladdened us," R 1444 ; my a gas
pys, " I pray you," 2346 ; re ges bo, " be it on
you/' 2585 ; ma gys byth, " that there be to
you," 348.
When a personal pronoun comes before a verb as
its complement, without such particle as is men-
tioned in the preceding paragraph, it takes the
form of the possessive. Examples : —
re ruh ow tholle (tolle), hath deceived me, O 286.
the rewardye my a ra, I will reward thee, O 2310.
me ny fynnaf y grygy (crygy), I will not believe it, R
1047.
greugh y tenne, do ye drag him, R 2232.
worth hy thempte (tempte), to tempt her, O 303.
kyfrenne (prenne), to take it, R 2234.
worth agan dry alemma, for carrying us hence, R 151*
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(delwedd F1195) (tudalen 246)
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246
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
rfa ruk agon dyfeu, he did forbid us, i8a.
agon cuthe guren, let m cover ourselves, O 354.
pan wruge ages damon, when I did send yon, D 913.
war beyn agas bos lefkys, on pain thai you be killed,
O 2556.
my a vyn aga threky (treky), I will cut them, O 1735.
aga guelas trueth, to see them was pitiful, R 899.
These pronouns may in fact be considered as
poesessives, coming as they do before infinitives,
which are really verbal nouns.
§.17. Prorwww with Prepositions.
Many prepositions coalesce with the pronouns
which they govern, forming with them one word.
In this case some euphonic artifice is used to unite
the two elements into a well-sounding compound : a
consonant is doubled or omitted, or a syllable is
added, and the vowels undergo the changes de-
scribed in §. 3. I give here examples of the various
modes ; and it will be seen that the pronouns are
represented in these compounds by the following
letters : m or f, " me ;" 8, " thee ;" 0, "him
;" y,
"her;" n, "us;" ugh, "you;" e, "them/' as
given in the fourth column of the table in the pre-
ceding section.
The prepositions exemplified are yn> " in ;" rag,
"for, before;" dre, "by, through;" gam, "by,
with;" war, "upon;" a, "from;" the, "to; w
orth or worth, " towards."
yn, in. rag, for, before.
ynnof, in me, R 707. ragof, for me, O 139.
ynnos, in thee, R 757. ragos, for thee, O *6o.
ynno, in him, D 2157. ragfho, for him, R 1251.
ynny, in her, D 2164. ragfhy, for her.
ynnon, in us, R 1321. ragon, for us, D 174.
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(delwedd F1196) (tudalen 247)
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PRONOUNS-
247
ynnoughyjn you.
ynne, in them, O 3457.
dre, by, through.
drefhqf, by me, O 134.
drefkos, by thee, R 2220.
dretho, by him, R 1756.
dry thy, by her, O 1668.
drefhon, by us.
drethough, by you,
drethe, by them, O 1958.
ragougk, for you, D 27.
ragfhe, for them, O 2456.
ragas in O 1723, 1724, D
265, &c. has certainly no-
thing to do with rag, but
is contracted from re ago*.
gans, by, with.
genef t by or with me, O 2192.
genes, . . with thee, O 2169.
ganso, . . with him, R 744.
gynsy, . . with her, O 2764.
gcnen, . . with us, O 2378.
geneugh,. . with you, R 1797.
ganse, .. with them, O 1 613.
gynef, D 564. gynen, R 1347.
genaf, O 672. genogh, D 184.
gynes, D 191. gansse, D1373.
war, upon.
warnaf, upon me, O 1344.
warnas, upon thee, O 1015.
warnofho, upon him, O 1539.
warnefhy, upon her, O 775.
warnan, upon us, O 1700.
wamough, upon you, R 1535.
wamefhe, upon them, D2686.
warnogh, D 2626.
a, from, of.
ahanaf, from me, D 306.
ahanas, from thee,
anofko, from him,
anefhy, from her,
ahanan, from us,
ahanough, from you, R 1500.
annethe, from them, O 1952.
ahaneSy O 406.
annotho, O 200.
annethy, O 218.
R1408.
R742.
D923.
O 1101.
f fc, to.
£Aym, O 2286.
fAy*, R 1473.
(hofho, O 2500.
f&#y, O 2755.
fhyn, R 1483.
fkeugh, D 2500.
thefhe, O 1824.
djym, D 741, to me.
dySy O 1969, to thee.
dofho, R 1445, t0 him.
defhy, D 2202, to her.
dyn, R 2361, to us.
deugk, to you.
def Ai, R 2600, to them.
(hyugh, O 2399, jheygh, D 4 ; fry, D 2246, dy, D 124.
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(delwedd F1197) (tudalen 248)
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248
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
worth, orth, at, to, against.
worthyf, O 170. orthyf, O 2524, to me.
worthy s, R 1570. orthys, to thee.
worto, O 222. orto, R 1343, to him.
worty, O 293, D3069. orfy, O 2173, to her.
worthyn, R 121 1. orthyn, O 212, to us.
wor though, R 1171. ortheugh, R 195, to you.
worte, O 2476. orte, to them.
Some of these forms receive an additional syl-
lable, either by way of emphasis, or for filling up a
line ; we have fhymmo, O 2256, or (hymo, 2333,
"to me;" (hyso, 2433, or dyso, 2191, "to
thee f fhynny, " to us/' R 626. Sometimes the
pronoun is repeated in the second state, as thymmo
vy, R 446 ; (hyso gy, O 2246 ; dyso sy, O 842 ;
ynno ef, R 2387 ; worty hy, 269 ; thynny ny,
R 568 ; fheugwhy why, 2209 ; annefhe y,
1952.
§. 18. Possessive Pronouns.
These pronouns are placed in the last column of
the table in p. 243, but are repeated here for con-
venience: — ovfl, "my;" the*, "thy;" y a ,
"his;"
y 3 , " her ;" agan, " our ;" agas, "your ;"
<iga 3 ,
" their ;" and the pronoun of the second state may
or may not follow the noun.
ou thermyn (termyri), my time, O 2344.
owferyl (peryl) vy., my peril, O 197.
(he vap {map), thy son, O 2341.
y fforf (corf), his body, O 2367.
y vofh (bofh) ef, his will, O 483.
yfeghas (peghas), her sins, D 528.
hy huth (cuth) hy, her affliction, O 297.
agan lef, our voice, O 2027.
agan arlufh ny, our Lord, R 1655.
agen ehen, our class, O 2066.
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(delwedd F1198) (tudalen 249)
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PRONOUNS.
249
agas myghtern, your king, O 2348.
agys crygyans, your belief, R 2389.
ages ancow, your death, R 612.
ages guyth why, your keeping, R 651.
aga threys (treys), their feet, O 760.
The possessive, like the personal pronouns, com-
bine with certain prepositions : chiefly a, " of" or
"from;" yn, "in," and the, "to;" also with the
conjunction ha, "and;" ow is then changed to m,
making (hii'm, " to my," (distinct from f hym, " to
me,") jfm, " in my ;" a'm, " of my ;" ha'm, "
and
my." The, " thy," throws away the vowel in the
same cases; the other possessives, beginning with
vowels, suffer no change, except that agas and agan
may lose the initial vowel. I do not know whether
agan, "of our," agas, "of your," should be so
written, or a gan, a gas; they should be joined
perhaps in the ordinary genitive, which requires
no preposition, and divided where a means rather
"out of" or "from." See p. 332.
Thum gtUas, to my country, R 879.
y'm colon, in my heart, R 760.
a'm qffryn, of my offering, O 530.
a'm cleves, of my malady, O 2631.
ha'm gorty, and my husband, O 181.
fhe'th corf, to thy body, R 487.
a'd pehosow, of thy sins, O 2259.
y'th tour, in thy palace, O 2389.
ha'th vaw (maw), and thy boy, D 2236.
a'y passon, of his passion, R 759.
th'y wleth (guleth), to his kingdom, O 2370.
jh'y thyskyblon (dyskyblon), to his disciples, R 794.
ha'y volnogeth (bolnogeth), and his will, O 2352.
ha 9 y avalow, and its fruits, O 176.
fh'agan dysyr, to our desire, R 1206.
(Pagan arkUh, to our lord, O 2580.
y gen lyfryow, in our books, R 24 11.
a gys company, of your company, D 868.
y ges golok, into your sight, R 1861.
*3
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(delwedd F1199) (tudalen 250)
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260
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
war gasflehes, on your children, D 3643.
h'agas myghtem, and your king, O 2348.
k*aga hynwyn, and their names, O 35.
A possessive followed by honan (honon) becomes
the more intense personality which we render by
" myself, himself/' &c I do not think it is ever
the reflected pronoun.
my a vyn mos ow hon . n, I will go myself, D 87.
ow colon ow honan, my heart of myself, or my own
heart, R 204a.
fhe honan, thyself, O 1455.
(he honyn, thyself, O 345.
y honan, himself, R 2065, 2073.
agon honan, ourselves, O 16.
egas honon, yourselves, D 545.
ages honan, yourselves, R 642.
§. 19. Demonstratives.
The adjectival demonstrative pronouns are ma
(me) and na (ne), suffixed to the substantive they
refer to. I have, in the text, divided them from
their substantives with a hyphen, but in the Manu-
script they are written in one word. There is no
distinction between singular and plural. Example :
yn by s -ma, in this world, O 1886.
an guel-ma, these rods, O 1739.
yn ur-na, in that hour, D 1899.
yn wlas-na, in that country, R 2461.
yn uur-ne, in that hour, D 1372.
Sometimes heth is added, to make the demon-
strative more definite, as,
an heth den-ma, this very man, D 1590.
an heth deu-na, that same God, O 1485.
an keth re-na, those very (persons), O 1879.
Sometimes the m is doubled, as in dremme, "this
town," 2284; dremma, "these places," O 2771 ;
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(delwedd F1200) (tudalen 251)
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PRONOUNS.
861
chymma, D 667, chemma, R 1397, " this house /'
and a lemma, " from this place/' 446. Alemma,
" from this place/' and alena, " from that place/'
are in frequent use as adverbs, meaning " hence"
and " thence/'
The substantive demonstratives distinguish the
masculine from the feminine :—
hem or hemma, m. horn or homma, f., this.
Aew or henna, m. Aon or honna, f., that.
Examples —
faro y» marth, this is a miracle, R 654.
me a dyp 00* hemma, I swear this is, R 2508.
homma keffrys, this (woman) also, D 519.
hen yu guyr t that is true, R 977.
y volnogeth yu henna, his will is that, 2352.
Turn yu cusylfyn, that is fine advice, O 2041.
guyr vres yu honna, a true judgment is that, D 515.
honna yw 61 {he vlamye, she is all to blame, O 266.
§. 20. Interrogative Pronouns.
The Interrogative Pronouns are all resolvable to
py and pa, " who," " what."
pan vernans, what (is) the death ? R 2047. = P a + an *
pa han pleyt, what (is) the plight ? R 2058.
pandra wylly, what dost thou see ? O 801. *=pa + an + dra.
pendra wreth, what wilt thou do ? R 203.
py nyl a mogha sengys, which one was most bound ?
D510.
py gymmys hys, what amount of length ? 2104.
When the pronoun ' who ' comes without addition,
it appears to be rendered by pyu, or pyw, either in
the nominative or the accusative, as,
pyu a ylta gy hones, who canst thou be ? R 251 1,
pyw a whyleugh, whom seek ye? D 1109.
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(delwedd F1201) (tudalen 252)
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868
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
but generally pyu is equivalent to py yu, " who is,"
as,
pyu myghtern a lowene, who is the King of joy ? R 106.
pyu henna, who is that? R 2487.
The addition of pynag makes the pronoun inde-
finite: —
py penag vo, whatever it be, O 1 154.
pe penag vo, whatever it be, O 662.
pig le penag, whatever place, D 1551*
pyu penagh a len grysso, whoever faithfully believes, R
2466.
This receives sometimes the addition of ol, " all."
py penag ol a sconyo, whoever may object, O 2388.
py penag ol a wharf 0, whatever may happen, R 671.
When the p is doubled, as in puppenagol, peppenagol,
I think the first syllable is pup or peh, " all."
Now and then pynag comes alone, as,
pynag a wharf o an cos, whatever may be the case, 1698.
pynag afo t whatever it be, R 2000.
pynak vo lettrys py Uk, whoever he be, lettered or lay,
D681.
penag a wryUyfanvne, whomsoever I shall kiss, D 1084.
§. 81. Relative Pronouns.
The Relative Pronoun is represented by a and
nep (neb) ; as,
afuegenys, who was born, D 1652.
a wruk Moyses (he planse, which Moyses did plant,
O 1946.
tas a wruk nef, the Father who made heaven, O 1785.
Urry nep marrek len, Uriah, who was a trusty knight,
O 2338.
neb a glewsys, whom thou didst hear, O 224.
{he nep yu toy ow colon, thou who art the joy of my heart,
R45 6 -
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(delwedd F1202) (tudalen 253)
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PRONOUNS.
253
Nep often includes the antecedent, like the Latin
qui: —
neb yu moghya, he who is greatest, D 792.
ha nep na'n gruk, and he who has not done it, R 158.
When the relative is in the accusative case, or is
governed by a preposition, a personal pronoun in
the required case is sometimes put after the verb,
as in the Semitic languages : " whom I saw" is
made " who I saw him ;" u to whom I spoke,"
" who I spoke to him :" as,
a fhanfonas e, whom he sent, D 169a.
py gansse, by whom, D 1373 (i. e. who by them).
The relative is often omitted, as in English :
on thus us gene, my people who are with me, D 112a.
the vap Ysac yw {he toy, thy son Isaac, who is thy joy,
o 1374.
yn le nafue den bythqueth, in a place where man never
"***> D 3 I 35-
Nep is also an indefinite pronoun : —
yn nep f os 9 in any wall, O 2458.
See also nep peyih a oel a vercy, " some of the
oil of mercy/' 327 ; nebes, in D 208, 495, is pro-
bably a mere contraction of nep peyih.
Myns may be considered as a relative pronoun,
including in itself the antecedent ' all,' like our
word * whatever.'
Iceusyns den myns a vynno, let a man say all that he. will,
R 2448.
hag ol myns 0, and every thing that was, R 127.
myns yu guyryon, whoever are innocent, R 163.
rak kuthe myns us formyys, to cover all that is created,
O22.
ty a fy\h mens a vynny, thou shalt have whatever thou
wilt, D 590.
KemmySy kymmys, "as many as," or "whoso-
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(delwedd F1203) (tudalen 254)
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854
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
ever," the Armoric bemerU and Welsh cymmcUnt,
is frequently used :
tommy $ re wnk bofh oto thus, as many as have done the
will of my father, R 157.
kemmys na greysa, whoever believes not, R 176.
It is used as a substantive in py gymmys hys,
"what amount of length," 2104.
Kynyver is like kemmys : — kynyver peyn us yn
beys, " any punishment there is in the world/'
R 2 °55 \ kynyver best us yn tyr, " as many beasts
as are in the world/' 12 15 ; see O 1029.
Suel is another relative rarely used ; the Welsh
sawL I find only one case of its employment : py
suel a vynnyth, " whatever thou wilt," D 592.
It is possible that sul a the'n nef'm R 136,, (sul
for suel,) which I have made " going up to heaven,"
may be " who is going to heaven." In Mount Cal-
vary suel is used at least three times: in 2. i.»
and 79. 2, where we have suell a vynno, it means
" he who ;" in 1 19. 4, suel a wresse, " that which."
§. 22. Miscellaneous Pronouns,
The following have been observed in going over
the text, but it is not believed that these are all.
" The one" and " the other," when opposed, are
sometimes made by nyl and gyle : — an nyl a delk
pymp cans, ha hanter cans y gyle, "the one owed
five hundred, and a half hundred the other," D
504, 506 ; me a gylm an nyl, ha me a gylm y gyle,
" I will bind the one, and I will bind the other/'
D 2785, 2788.
a Misprinted cuell, which misled Zeuss.
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(delwedd F1204) (tudalen 255)
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PRONOUNS.
255
Sometimes "the other" is made by aral, in
plural erel: — an nyl torn yfyfh re hyr f tres aval
re got, "at one hand it is too long, by the other too
short," O 2548, 2549.
Aral is always used with a substantive :
ioseph ha tus erel, Joseph and other persons, R 3.
en fhyu grous erel, the two other crosses, D 2820.
pie kefyr dyu grous oral, where may two other crosses be
found, D 2576.
In this last example aral may be put in the sin-
gular for the sake of the rhyme ; this would be ad-
missible in consequence of the singular form of the
preceding word after a numeral; as also in lyes
profits aral, "many other prophets/' R '485.
In Armoric, 4bSn is used for " the other," when
feminine ; and I believe the following lines contain
cases of a similar pronoun in Cornish : —
My a dyl tol rak hybeen, " I will bore a hole for
the other," D 2749, follows a line by another
speaker, me a teyl tol rag an nyl, " I will bore a
hole for the one," D 2743. As the allusion is to
the feminine noun luef, " the hand," there cannot
be much doubt in the case.
In why drehevough ybeyn, "you raise the other,"
D 2826, the case is not so sure, because the allu-
sion may be either to the man or the cross ; both
are mentioned, but crous is a feminine noun.
In the third case, ty a flieg a neyl pen, cachaf
yben, " thou carry one end, I will seize the other,"
O 2816, pen is masculine ; so that either the Corn-
ish does not follow the Armoric, or the last clause
will awkwardly mean " I will seize its end."
The word ken, which is usually a conjunction,
as in D 481, is also used for 'other ;' as,
nag us ken deu agesos, there is no other God than thou,
R 2477-
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(delwedd F1205) (tudalen 256)
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856
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
a wylsta ken, dost thou see any other thing, O 795.
{he kenpow, to another country, R 2218.
yn ken lyw, in another colour, R 2534.
"Any" is made by nep, which is placed before
the substantive it refers to ; as,
yn nep maner, in any way, R 497.
yn neb aulas, in any land, O 1 120.
yn nep f 08, in any wall, O 2458.
" Any " may also be made by byth, placed after
the substantive ; as,
den vyth, O 2457, or **./W*» an y """^ D I 4 8l#
trumeth vyth, any mercy, O 1650.
mar quren fiogh vyth deny thy, if we do any children pro-
duce, O 390.
01 added to byth makes it more indefinite, as,
den byth ol, any man whatever, R2169.
onan vyth ol, any one of them, O 1697.
marpyth drok vyth ol gureys, if any evil is done, O 601.
Pup, " all," is used alone, or with a substantive ;
and sometimes with the addition of ol : —
ynpup tra, in all things, O 2354.
guetyeugh pup y worthye, take care all to worship it,
2555.
pup den ol, all men, O 1043, D 1905.
war pep ol mamas ty, over all but thee, O 948.
gans pup ol, by every body, R 1096.
pup huny, every one, O 969, 2017.
Ol is used in the same way :
gulan yu ol, all are clean, D 864.
ol the chy, all thy house, O 2340.
arluth dres ol an bys-ma,\ord above all this world, D1683.
Kettep, " every :"
marow vethyn kettep pen, dead we shall be every head,
O 1655.
yn kettep pen, every head, D 762.
kettep onan, every one, D 2821.
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(delwedd F1206) (tudalen 257)
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VERBS.
257
Lyes, lues, "many/' is used with a substantive
singular : —
yn lyes le, in many places, D 749.
ynno lues trygva, in it many dwellings, O 951.
lyes profits aral, many other prophets, R 1485.
Be is like a substantive, meaning " persons " or
" things :"
an re-ma yu oberys, these (things) are made, O 15.
cafus re me a vyn s take those (persons) I will, R 184.
an keth re-na, these same (men), O 1897.
the wruthyl gans an re-na, to do with them, D 182.
§. 23. VERBS.
The Cornish verb, in conjugation, in forms, and
in the number and use of its tenses, approaches
more nearly to the Armoric than to the Welsh verb,
though some of its forms are more like those of the
latter dialect.
Every verb may be conjugated in three different
modes ; in the first, which I call the Inflected con-
jugation, every tense and person has its own form,
as in Latin and Greek, and it is equally rare to find
a personal pronoun used as it is in those languages;
it is not done unless emphasis be required ; as, my
ny gresaf) " I will not believe (if you do), R 904.
The present tense of the verb care, " to love,"
is in this mode of conjugating made, caraf, keryth,
car, keryn, carough, car am.
In the second mode, which Breton grammarians
call the Impersonal conjugation, the third person
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(delwedd F1207) (tudalen 258)
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858
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
angular is taken for the whole tense, and the
persons are distinguished by the added pronoun, as
in English and French. The present tense is thus,
my a gar, ty a gar, ef a gar, ny a gar, why a
gar, y a gar ; car becomes gar by the influence of
the affirmative a*, used when the subject precedes
the verb.
In the third mode, which may be conveniently
called the Compound conjugation, the auxiliary
" to do" accompanies the verb to be conjugated,
precisely in the same manner as is done in the
English, " I do love," &c. The sole difference is,
that the Cornish extends this addition of the auxi-
liary verb to cases where we do not use it ; saying
not only "I do love" and "I did love," but also
" I will do love." The first tense would thus be
generally, my a wra care, " I do love," ty a wra
care, " thou dost love ;" and if used personally,
which is less frequently done, guraf care, gureth
care, &c.
There can be no doubt that these various modes
show a corruption in the language, which the more
classical Welsh would disdain ; but it appears prac-
tically to have conferred facilities in the expres-
sion of certain modifications of meaning, akin to
those we find in English from the use of € might/
' could/ 'would/ € should/ &c., which the stiffer
forms of Latin, or even German, would hardly ad-
mit of.
§. 84. We may here notice what are called by
Zeuss the verbal particles, y 2 , a*, and re*. Fand
a are used only in affirmative sentences, and the
chief difference I find between them is that a is
used where the nominative case precedes the verb,
as in me a wra (gura), " I will do," R 1755 ; ef a.
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(delwedd F1208) (tudalen 259)
|
TENSES.
269
vynse (mynse), "he would have wished/' O 2224;
urry afyth (byth) lefhys, " Uriah shall be killed/'
2123 ; and y where the nominative either follows
or is omitted ; as, y fyen lefty s, " I should be
killed/' O 2120; y ma moyses pel gyllys, "Moses
is gone far/' 1682.
I did not discover until a good deal of the work
was printed, that yfh, which frequently occurs, is a
mere euphonic change of y before a vowel : see yth
arghafy "I command/' O381 ; yth ymwanas, "he
stabbed himself," R 2065 ; yth emwyskys, " he
smote himself," R 2067 ; yth qf 9 " I mil go," R
2400, &c. &c. In ythanwaf (=yfh hanwaf,) O
123, and yfheuel, 19, an A is omitted; see yth
heuel, R 2491. In like manner the participal our 3
(see below, in the participles,) may become owfh
before a vowel, as in oufh emlofh, D 2509, owfh
ysethe, D 2342, oufh ymwethe, ("craving," from
the Welsh ymhwedd) R 1170, owfh egery, "open-
ing," D 2999 ; and the conjecture hazarded in the
note on D 932 will be well founded. As in the
case of y, there is the omission of h in outhenwel
(=outh henwel), O 2729,
The use of the particle re will be given under
the Third tense.
§.25. Tenses.
There are five tenses, analogous in form, though
slightly differing in value, to those of Welsh and
Armoric verbs. I distinguish them by numbers, to
avoid any ambiguity which might attend the vary-
ing practice of writers on Celtic grammar. No
distinct division of moods is made here, because
many of the forms are used as indicatives as well as
subjunctives.-
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(delwedd F1209) (tudalen 260)
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260
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
The first tense is used for present or future time.
The termination of the first person was af in the
three languages, though the Bretons now write
ann. The Welsh use this tense almost always as a
future, expressing the present by a periphrasis:
the Bretons keep to the present time, and use the
fifth tense as a future ; in Cornish it is most com-
monly used for present time : the frequent use of
the Compound conjugation enabled the Cornishman
to make a separate future, though he still continued
to use the First tense for future time occasionally.
Taking the verb care, " to love," as our example,
the present tense is —
caraf, keryth, car : keryn, carough, carons.
m
The Second tense is the imperfect of Welsh and
Breton grammarians; Zeuss named it the secondary
present. It is sometimes used as an indicative,
sometimes as an optative or subjunctive, a potential
or a conditional. This vagueness is unnecessary in
Cornish, because the Compound conjugation gives a
fair conditional ; but the Cornish writers neverthe-
less retained the variety of meaning occasionally
with the simple form, and even confounded it with
the Fourth tense. The first person ends with en in
Cornish, em% in Armoric, and wn in Welsh. The
whole tense is made —
caren, cares, care (cara) : eaten, careugh, car ens.
The Third tense is the Preterite, and its use is
the same in the three languages. The first person
ends in ys in Cornish, ais in Welsh, and iz in
Armoric. The whole tense is —
kerys, kersys, caras : kersyn, carsough, carsons(ans).
The Fourth tense is named the Preterpluperfect
in Welsh and Armoric ; Zeuss called it the second-
ary perfect. Its use in those languages is in ac->
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(delwedd F1210) (tudalen 261)
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TENSES.
261
cordance with its name, but it is more commonly
employed as a subjunctive or conditional. In Corn-
ish, so far as I have observed, it is used as a con-
ditional only, and it is frequently confounded with
the second tense. The first person in Cornish ends
with sen, in Welsh with stun, in Armoric zenru The
whole tense is —
carsen, corses, carse : carsen, carseugk, car sens.
The Fifth tense is a subjunctive present or future
in Cornish, and in Welsh, I believe, rather future
than present ; in Armoric it is the Future indica-
tive. The respective terminations of the first person
^ G ttfy w Hfy if (w*n). The plural of this tense is
often confounded with that of the Second tense, and
it will be seen generally that there is a good deal
of irregularity in the inflections, which makes the
paradigm given rather theoretically than practically
exact. The whole tense is —
hyryf, kyry, caro : Jcyryn, kyreugh, carons.
The Imperative is—
car, cares or carens : car en y careugh, car ens.
The infinitive takes many forms ; sometimes it is
the simple root, sometimes a vowel is added to the
root, and sometimes el, es, &c. In the example
given here, the termination is e, as care.
The active participle is made by prefixing ow°,
changing a sonant initial to its surd form ; as in
Armoric, where o taUa, " delaying," is from datea,
" to delay."
The passive participle ends in ys, as kyrys.
The passive verb ends in er or yr, which by
Welsh analogy should designate the present and
future tenses; but I find no difference in their use;*
er is far more frequent than yr; the past tense
ends in ew, and a conditional is found in ser.
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(delwedd F1211) (tudalen 262)
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262
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
§. 26. As the above enumeration differs in some
degree from the plan of Lhuyd, I shall give several
examples of each form used, when there is any
doubt.
I. Tense. First person : — gowegneth ny garaf
(caraf), " I do not love falsehood," R 906 ; lava-
raf fhengh newothow, " I will tell you news," R
894. In this person /is sometimes omitted for the
sake of rhyme; as, ny vynna, "I will not,"
l 3i° I a wela, " I see," 1396 : lavara, " I say,"
1645, D 1.
Second person : — ny geusyth (keusyth, from
cons), "thou dost not speak," D 2181; ny a'n
tregh del levereth, " we will cut it as thou sayest,"
2 533 \ ny'm guelyth arte, " thou shalt not see
me again," 244.
Lhuyd makes i the termination ; but this is the sub-
junctive.
Third person : — neb may fe moghya geffys, a
gar (car) moghye, " he who is forgiven most, loves
most," D 513 ; mar kyfcarynnyas y tryg, "if he
finds carrion he will stay," 1 103, 4.
It is seen by these examples that some verbs make no
change in this form, as car; while others, as kyf from
caf, are subject to the rule of §.3, notwithstanding
the absence of a final *, which is quite lost in the
Cymric dialects, though it existed in the old Irish, as
cairi, " he loves."
First person plural: — ny gemeryn (kemeryri) nep
lowene, " we take not any pleasure," R 2365 ;
amen pigyn, "Amen, we pray," D 199; leveryn
61 thofho, " we will all say to him,'' D 2880.
Lhuyd makes this termination on.
Second person plural : — ny woftwugh (gothowgh)
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(delwedd F1212) (tudalen 263)
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TENSES.
263
»
aw gorthyby, "ye knew not how to answer me,
D 1484 ; prog yth hembrenkygh, " why do ye
lead ? D 204.
Lhuyd ends this in oh.
Third person plural : — ny wothons (gofhons) py
nyl a wrom, " they know not what they do," D
2774 ; ny'n cresons ef neffre, " they will never
believe it," O 1440.
Lhuyd writes anz.
II. Tense. First person; Indicative: — ny wo-
(hyen (gofhyen) man, "I did not know air all,"
R 2 559 > tyth n V wylyn (guylyn), I did not see
any thing," R 434.
Subjunctive: a's dysken, "if I take it off," R
1941 ; a quellen (guellen) wyfh, " if I could see
once," O 685 ; py le penag y's kyffyn, " wherever
I find a place," D 1551.
Conditional : ru'm fay a'n caffen, " by my faith
I would take him," R 289.
Second person; Indicative: — nywofhas (got has),
"thou didst not know," D 2181 ; why lyes, "thou
wast seeking," R 1680.
Subjunctive, &c. : a tryckes yn tre, " if thou
hadst stayed at home," R1381; (confusion of tense)
ny wothes (go(hes) whefh, "thou may est not know
yet," D 848 ; beys vynytha y wharthes (guar-
thes), "for ever thou wouldst laugh," O J53.
See also D 2862, 2864, for conditionals ending
in ys.
Third person : — hacre mernans ny gaffe den,
" a more cruel death a man may not find," R 2074 ;
byth wel cusyl a lavarre, "any better advice who
can tell," R422; ru'm gorre fh'y wlas, "may he
bring me to his country," O 532 ; py plas y \hyUe y
" where he may go," D 635 ; hyn tfn carra,
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(delwedd F1213) (tudalen 264)
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264
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
" though he may love him," R 1897 ; pan dre-
menna an bys-ma, "when this life may pass,
875 \ me a'n gafse a menne gelwel, "I would for-
give him if he would ask," D 1816 ; war Ihesu
me a cry as fhymmo gafe, "I cried to Jesus that
ne would forgive me," R 1100; golow na wella
(guella), "that he may not see light," R 2003.
First person plural: — na wrellen buthy, "that
we be not drowned," 1048 ; by 8 venytha na sor-
ren, "nor should we be troubled for ever," O 320.
Such forms as wreny, D 190, and veny, D 604, are
-probably orthographical variations of wren ny and
Second person plural: — mas y*m gorthebeugh,
" unless ye answer me," R 47 ; pysough na en-
treugh yn temptacyon, "pray that ye enter not
into temptation," D 1059.
Third person plural : — avorow thifs may teffens,
"that they come to thee to-morrow," 2417 ; me
a vynse a talfens, "I would they were worth,"
D 211.
I believe this is the tense which Lhuyd makes mat hueU
lam, huellaz, huello, huellan, huettoh, kueUanz, with
the exception of hueUo.
III. Tense. First person : — 61 an tekter a wytys
(guylys), "all the beauty that I saw," O 766;
worto y keusys, " I spoke to him," R 897 ; y vyrys
y wolyow, a I saw his wounds," R 898.
Second person : — tersys an bara, " thou didst
break the bread," R 13 1 8 ; mab deu neb a wyU
sys {gylsys)) "the Son of God it was whom thou
sawest," 809.
Lhuyd makes this termination yst, which is Welsh
rather than Cornish; the Armoric agrees with the
Cornish in the insertion of a sibilant.
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(delwedd F1214) (tudalen 265)
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TENSES.
265
Third person : — clewas agan lef, "he heard oar
voice," 2027 ; un marrek cCn la(has f " a horse-
man slew him/' 2226.
I am inclined to think that dorrasa, in pan dorrasa an
aval, " when he plucked the apple/' O 879, is a
subjunctive form of this tense, as in the irregulars
wruge and thuhe.
First person plural : — leveryn del wylsyn (guyL
syn) ny, " let us speak as we saw," R 807 ; an
corf a worsyn (gorsyn) yn befh, " the body which
we placed in the tomb," R 49.
Second person plural: — an onor a wrussough
(grussaugh) thfmmo, " the honour which you did
to me," D 312 ; corf a worseugh (gorseugh) why,
"the body which you placed," R43.
Third person plural :—pan y'n lafhsom, " when
they killed him," D 3098 ; ny torsans chy, " they
did not break the house," R 662.
The addition of the word re* } corresponding
with the old Welsh ry, re, now seldom, if ever,
used, (see Williams's Dosparth, &c. Llandovery,
1856, pp. 130,131, and Zeuss, p. 420,) turns this
tense into the preterperfect, and was of frequent
use in Cornish : —
ef re gollas an plas, he hath lost the place, O 420.
an sarf re ruk ou tholle, the serpent hath deceived me,
O2S6.
my re wrukprenne, I have redeemed, R 2622.
hy re gqfes, she has found, O n 43.
Re is also frequently found with the third person
singular of the Second or Fifth tense, in the impera-
tive or optative sense ; as, re'n kergho an dewolow,
" let the devils fetch him," R 2277 5 re wronntyo,
"let him grant," 1726; re bo, "let him be,"
R 2417 ; re by gorthys, "be he worshipped," R
vol. n. N
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(delwedd F1215) (tudalen 266)
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866
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
3533 ; ruVw gorre, u may he bring me," 532.
It often occurs in the phrase ragas bo, for re agas
bo, and once, 1724, in ragas guytho. In O 2585
it is written re ges bo. The verb eth, "he went,"
takes 8 after re: see re seth, D 1027, 1246*
IV. Tense. First person: — guelas ow map y
carsen, "1 would love to see my son," R442;
desefsen merwel, "I would have desired to die/'
R 1771 ; mensen, " I would wish," R 444.
In R 289, 290, we have an example of the confusion be-
tween this and the Third tense : a'n caffen, y'n totUsen,
" I would take him, I would cast him." It is pos-
sible, however, that the reading may be cafsen.
Second person : — (fie'n nef grasses yshynne, " to
heaven thou wouldst ascend/' O 156.
Third person : — ny garse pelle bewe, " he would
not like to live longer," O 738 ; yn tridyth y y n dre-
qfse, " in three days he would rebuild it," D 366.
First person plural : — ny ny'n drosen thy* so gy,
"we would not have brought him to thee," D
1976.
Second person plural : — pan cleuseugh cous,
" when ye heard speak," D 1338, (may be the
Third tense).
Third person plural: — ny wrussens (grussens)
ow dystrewy, "they would not have destroyed
me," D 2777.
Lhuyd gives a tense corresponding with this in form : —
guelzen, guelzez, guelze : guelzen, guelze\ guelzenz, or
* This verb, in all its forms beginning with a vowel, takes
s, or its equivalent th, after the conjunction mar and some
others. In this it is like the vocalic forms of the verb sub-
stantive, as well as in its frequent accompaniment of yfh.
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(delwedd F1216) (tudalen 267)
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TENSES,
267
guelazzenz : he makes it the preter-pluperfect tense.
He also gives a subjunctive future, guyjfym, guylfydh,
gvylyfj guylfon, gueffo, guylfynz: this is certainly
one of the compounds of the verb substantive, of
which there are many in the other dialects as well as
in Cornish : adnabod in Welsh and anavout in Armo-
ric are instances. I think I find clewfyf, " I should
feel/' in 135 1 ; clewfo, "that he may hear/' is cer-
tainly the reading of D 3063. The Breton makes the
conditional in fenn, zenn, smdjenn, indiscriminately.
A Cornish future in fyth (wyfh, vyfh) is often found
impersonal: — ty a wylfyfh (guylfyfh), "thou shalt
see/' O 1449; gofhfyth, "I shall know/' O 1400;
me a'n carvyfh, " I will love him/' D 1703 ; ef a'th
carvyfh, "he will love thee," D 1846; ny a'n guyl-
fyth 9 " we shall see it/* R 53, &c. &c.
V. Tense. First person : — worto pan wofynnyf
{9°fywnyf>) "of liim when I ask," D 1855; bys
may \hyllyf, " until I enter/' D.726; guel ha
gyllyf, "the best that I can/' D 301a.
Second person : — me a'th canjar may leverry,
"I adjure thee that thou tell," 01323; gueyt
may tanfenny, (danfenny), "take care that thou
send," R 1630.
Third person: — pyu penagh a ten grysso
(crysso), "whosoever shall faithfully believe," E
2466 ; a gutho (cutho) ol an nor beys, " which
shall cover all the face of the earth," 982 ; kettyl
y'n geffo (keffo) a'n bay } " when he shall find him,
he will kiss him," D 986.
I think I find this form used in the indicative :— my a's
dyllo, "I will send her/' O 1101. We have also
doro as a future in D 147 1 ; hut as we find doro in
the imperative mood in O 1904, it may also he the
First tense. It is possible that dyllo may be in the
same case, but I have no evidence.
First person plural: — mar hejyn den, "if we
N 2
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(delwedd F1217) (tudalen 268)
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268
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
find a man/' D 647 ; pan deffiyn ny, " wkon we
come/' R 773.
These do not differ in form from the First tense, and we
might be justified in looking upon the distinction of
forms here as not going beyond the gmgnlmp immlttE .
At the same time we have mar kyf 9 "if he findst*
O 1 103; mar a's guel, "if he sees you," I> 1.0&3 ;
and many other instances, where there is a diflfeanent
form for the two tenses.
Second person plural : — del y'm h/rreugh* BS
ye love me," O 543 ; pan y*n ouyttougk, (C whtexx
you shall see him," R 1912.
Third person plural : — mar a'n kefons, " if* th^/ * /
find him/' D 582 ; kyn teffons, « though -fchey /
come," R 392 ; may teffons omma, " that t>V*ffI j
come here," 2408. j
It is not unfrequent to find the vowel a or ^ g*™'
fixed to a verb in the second person singular ix± *&
interrogative or subjunctive construction; th« ***-
lowing examples shew the practice : —
Interrogative.
prog yfheta, why goest thou ? R 241.
pendra wreta, what doest thou? D 1185, 2981.
pendra vynta, what wilt thou? O 1311.
pie cleusta, where didst thou hear ? O 2642.
pan a wrusta, what didst thou ? D 2007.
a garsesta, wouldst thou love ? D 2838.
a welte, seest thou ? D 2925.
pendra ny vente, why wilt thou not ? D 1775.
pefeste, where wast thou ? O 467.
fattel fhuthte, how didst thou come ? R 260.
prag y tolste, why didst thou deceive ? O 302.
a alsesta (gahesta), wouldst thou be able ? R 862.
Subjunctive.
mar ny wreta, if thou dost not, R 1088.
na venta, that thou wilt not, D 1293.
pan leverta, since thou sayest, D 2017.
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(delwedd F1218) (tudalen 269)
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TENSES.
269
a'n guelesta, if thou shouldst see him, R 861.
mar a cruste (gruste) lever el, if thou didst say, D 1759*
aban golste, Bince thou hearkenedst, O 269.
In a few cases we find similarly the vowel a
after a verb in the first person, and then the vowel
is preceded by m ; as, pendra wrama, what shall I
do, R 679, D 856 ; ellas pan fema gynys, alas !
that I was born I R 2207 ; aban oma dasserghys,
since I am risen, R 2436 ; hedre vyma ou pygy 9
whilst I am praying, D 1013. See 1. 1020.
I compare this to the addition of a vowel in such
expressions as ywe, ose, usy, wruge, &c, where
some kind of contingency or uncertainty is implied.
We must for this suppose that the final m, as found
in Irish, and in the oldest Welsh glosses, for the first
person singular, is restored, as well as the st for
the second person of the preterite, in cleusta, feste,
as in the Welsh ceraist. In the second person of
the First tense the dental yet remains, though
weakened to thK
§. 27. Imperative. Second person : — lavar,
«■ I had supposed at first that ma
and ta in these cases
were the personal pronouns my and ty in an altered form ;
but the observation of an able philological friend has satisfied
me that the explanation in the text is the true one. The
grammatical value of the final vowel, when a verb follows
certain conjunctions, such as pan or mar, is clear from the
forms gruge and duthe instead of gruk and duth in O 423,
D 524, and other passages. We are not bound to consider
ta, in such words as venta and leverta, as necessarily ad-
ditional to the verb ; I look at venta and leverta as equiva-
lent to vennyth + a and leveryth + a rather than to venny + ta
and Uvery + taj wrama, too, seems to be more probably
wram + a than wraf+ ma. There does not appear to be any
reason for changing my and ty to ma and ta, whereas the
annexation of a or e to a verb in a phrase denoting contin-
gency is in accordance with the usage of the language.
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(delwedd F1219) (tudalen 270)
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270
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
" say," D 965 ; treyl, "turn," D 1155 ; mf,
"stand," O65.
Third person: — guereses, "let him help,"
a 78i ; gylw€8, "let him call," 2774; guyskyns,
" let him strike," D 2766 ; tommans, " let him
warm," D 833.
First person plural i—jystynyn, " let us hasten,"
D 645 ; leveryn, "let us say," R 806 ; guren, "let
us do," D 644.
Second person plural: — levereugh, "say ye," D
j 109 ; gueresough, " help ye," D 1143.
Third person plural : — kelmyns, " let them tie,"
D583.
§.28. Infinitive: — care, "to love," O 1126, D
511; leverel, " to say," D 1759 ; dybry, " to eat,"
264; dan/on, "to send," D 16 15; kernel, "to
speak," D 1276; hyrhas, "to fetch," 2371;
myras, O 1399, myres, O 1412, "to see."
Participle, active or present. Examples are nu-
merous : the following are selected for the purpose
of shewing the conversion of the sonant initial : —
ou corthye (gorthye), "worshipping," O 161 6; ou
cul (gul), " making," O 1556 ; ow ielwel (gelwel),
" calling," O 2430 ; ow querthe (guerthe), " sell-
ing," D 1520; ou tos (dos), "coming," 1651;
ou tysputye, " disputing," D 1628. It is more like
a neuter participle in pan us gueyth ou tesehe,
"when the trees are drying," O 1128.
Participle, passive or past: — kyrys, "loved," R
892; lyfhys, "killed," R 903; offrynnys, "offered,"
1327 ; gorrys, " placed," R 430.
§. 29. Passives. First tense : — aban na gejyr
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(delwedd F1220) (tudalen 271)
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TENSES.
871
*
(kejyr) ken, " since no other is found," O 2503 ;
pie kefyr dyu grouts aral, " where may two other
crosses be found," D 2576, compare py Jcefer
pren, D 2535 ; del redyer in lyes fe, " as it is read
in many places," D 1168 ; mdn gueller a ver ter-
myn, " as will be seen in a short time," D 1940.
When the auxiliary verb is passive, the passive
sense is transferred to the principal verb : —
mar ny wrer (gurer)y wythe, if he be not guarded, R 341.
mar hetter (getter) y wythe, if he can be kept, D 3058.
ny yttyr (gyttyr) re {he worthe, thou canst not be too much
honoured, O 1853.
Third tense : — Zeuss, in p. 525, makes a passive
in as analogous to the old Welsh and Armoric at
(now id. W. and ed, Arm.). His examples are —
yn delta y re (hyshas, "thus they have been
taught/' P. 80. 3, and y torras (printed dorr as)
an veyn, " the stones were broken," P. 209. 4.
The old translators took this for the active third
person, and rendered the phrases given by "as
them others taught," and "they broke the stones ;"
but an example from our book confirms the view of
Zeuss : pan dorras queth an tempel, " when the
vail of the temple was" rent," D 3088 : we may
perhaps cite also f ethos yu cos, " the cause was
gained," R 579, and uthyk yw clewas y lef, " loud
was heard his voice," R 2340.
^ have found very few instances of a passive verb used
in any other than the third person. In O 1 and D
873, we have y'm gylwyr, " I am called;" and in O
1924, may hotter agas cuthe, "that you may be
covered :" see also O 1852, quoted above. These
are in accordance with Welsh ; hut it is difficult to
consider them precisely passives, because the pro-
noun, which ought to be the subject of the verb if
passive, is in the state especially employed when it is
the object. The view of Legonidec, the Breton gram-
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(delwedd F1221) (tudalen 272)
|
878
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
marian, who calls these verbs Impersonate* and ren-
ders them by the pronoun on, as on m'appeUe, appears
the most suitable.
Fourth tense : — ha re-na galser the rey, " and
those might have been given/' D 537.
It may be as well to give a complete paradigm
here, and the verb selected is care, "to love."
The most regular forms are set down, but others
will be found in the manuscript.
First tense : — € I love' or ' shall love.'
caraf, keryth, car : keryn, carough, carens.
Second tense: — 'I was loving* or 'would love'
or f should love/
caren, cares, care or cara : caren, careugh,
carens.
Third tense : — ' I loved.'
ierys, kersys, caras : tersyn, carsough, carsons
or car sans.
Fourth tense: — f I had loved' or 'would have
loved/
carsen, carses, carse : carsen, carseugh, carsens.
Fifth tense :— < If I love/
tyryf* tyry* caw • tyry 71 * tyre/ugh, carons*
Imperative : — ' Love thou/
car, cares or carens : caren, careugh, carens.
Infinitive : — care, " to love/'
Participles : — ou care, " loving ;" hyrys, " loved."
Passive, present and future : — carer, keryr,
" is/' or " shall be loved/'
Conditional : — carser, " would be loved/'
Past : — caras, " was loved/'
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(delwedd F1222) (tudalen 273)
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VERBS.
27S
As a general rule, whenever a question is asked,
where there is not some interrogative pronoun or
adverb, the letter a is put at the beginning ; as,
a ny vynta obeye, " wilt thou not obey V 9 1505.
Sometimes a is added when there is already an
interrogative particle, probably to fill up the metre;
as, a pyth yu an keth deu-na, " what is that same
God ?" 1485.
A negative is indicated by placing ny* or na*
before a verb ; as,
ny {hue arte, it will not come again, O 1102.
na allqfsparie, that I cannot spare, O 946.
na wrello, that it may not do, O 1092.
Na is usually employed with imperatives and sub-
junctives.
§. 80. Impersonal Conjugation.
The Impersonal conjugation is generally em-
ployed when the nominative case precedes the
verb directly, more especially when the nomina-
tive is a personal pronoun ; the subject is generally
followed by the particle a, and the initial of the
verb takes the second form ; the verb is always in
the third person singular. This conjugation is so
simple that it will be required merely to give a few
examples of each case, to enable a student to under-
stand it fully : —
me a lever, I say, R 106 1.
me a sorras, I was angry, D 142 1.
me a vynse (mynse), I would wish, D 211.
me re behas (pehas), I have sinned, O 249.
ty a wor (gor), thou wilt know, R 256.
ty a tew, thou wilt be silent, R 984.
ty a'n nahas, thou deniedst him, R 1351.
ty ru'm tullas, thou hast deceived me, O 252.
ty a'n guelse, thou wouldst have seen him, R 1382.
N 3
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(delwedd F1223) (tudalen 274)
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874
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
rfn goUas, he has lost, O 430.
«y a bys (pys), we pray, 107a.
«y a dryg (tryg), we will remain, O 21 13.
*y a 9<tfa* {cqfas), we found, R 1474.
ay a'n recevas, we received him, R2339.
ay a ^ewy# {keusys), we spoke, R 1373.
why a gyf (kyf), you will find, D 176.
y a »yy, they fly, 1068.
y afyth (tyth), they are, R 1477-
§. 31. Oampmmd Conjugation.
The Compound conjugation is made by putting
the auxiliary verb "to do" before the infinitive
mood, as "I do love/' "he does know/' &c. in
English. Sometimes the comes between the auxili-
ary and the infinitive. As this verb is irregular it
is necessary to give the paradigm : —
TO DO.
Infinitive : —
gruthyl, D198, O1004; guthyl, O1952; gutkul,Jl
2252 ; or, gtd, O 1174.
First tense : —
gurqf, I do, O 1988. guren, we do, O 1146.
gureth, thou dost, R 459. gureugk, ye do, O 912.
gura, he does, 1376. gurotu, they do, D 2775.
We have guregh, D 814, for gureugh.
Second tense : —
gurettyn, I was doing, or, I would do, O 445.
« rthou wert doing or wouldst do.
gures, R451 J ^
gure, R 6, D 1309 "1
gurtfe, D 1316 I
gureUa, D 1958 f he *** dom « or would do '
gureva, D 2882 J
gurellen we were doing or would do, 183.
gureUeugh, ye were doing.
gurellens, they were doing.
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(delwedd F1224) (tudalen 275)
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VERBS.
87fi
Third tense :-
gwrys (?) I did.
grussys, thou didst, O 222.
grruk, he did, R 158.
grussyn, we did.
grussyvgh, O 2792 J '
grussons, they did, O 337.
When a conjunction comes before the third person
singular, the form of the verb is generally gmge y
a true subjunctive ; as, pan wruge, O 423, 2250,
D913.
Fourth tense : —
grussen, I would have done, O 163.
grasses, thou wouldst have done, 156.
grusse, he would have done, O 152.
grussyn, we would have done, R 2624.
grusseugh, ye would have done.
grussens, they would have done.
Fifth tense : —
guryUyf, that I may do, O 531.
gvrylly, that thou mayst do, O 1784.
gurello, that he may do, R 498.
guretten, that we may do, O 1048.
guryUeugh, that ye may do, D 811.
grons, that they may do, O 2034.
Imperative mood : —
guren, let us do, O n 70.
gura, do thou, D 1957. greugh, do ye, R 2232.
Vfc — , rfet him do. gurens, let them do.
grens, D 371, J y »
Participle active : —
oti culy doing, 1556.
Participle passive : —
gurys, O 431, gures, done, O 988.
Passive : —
gurer, it is done, 1936, R341.
L
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(delwedd F1225) (tudalen 276)
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276
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
Note that gu in this verb is equivalent to g only : it
does not make an additional syllable, and its muta-
tions are tbose of g .- we have thus russe, O 152,
and wruuen, O 163.
The following example will suffice to shew the
manner of using this conjugation : —
First tense: —
daggrow tyn guraf dyvere, bitter tears I shall shed, O 402.
an guel guraf {he drehy, the rods I will cut, O 1988.
pan wreth agon dysky, when thou dost teach us, D 36.
an gorhel guren dyscuthy, the ark we will uncover, 1146.
ny wreugh why tryge, ye shall not remain, O 317.
y wrons clamdere, they will faint, O 400.
Impersonal : —
y cuthe me a wra, cover him I will, D 1376.
my a ray dybry, I will eat it, O 248.
Ay a wra aspye, she will look, 11 15.
(he verkye my a gura, mark thee I will, O 602.
tf a wra dynythy, he shall produce, O 638.
aga gora ty a wra, put them thou shalt, O 991.
goef a ra (he serry, unhappy he who angers thee, 1016.
This is the most ordinary way of making the future
tense in Cornish.
Second tense : —
leverel gura na wreUa dampnye, do say that he condemn
not, D 1958.
na wreUen dybbry, that we should not eat, O 183.
an temple y wre terry, the temple he would destroy, D 1309.
y wrefe y fhrehevel, he would rebuild it, D 1316.
The conditional is generally made by this tense.
Third tense : —
pan wrussys cole, that thou didst hearken, O 222.
an sarf re ruk ow thoUe, the serpent hath deceived me,
O286.
Imperative : —
gura on gorthyby, answer me, O 301.
J
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(delwedd F1226) (tudalen 277)
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VERBS.
277
agon cuthe gwren, let us cover ourselves, O 254.
greugh y tenne met a'n dour, draw him out of the water,
R 2232.
Infinitive : —
dre unU trogh, through breaking, O 298.
§. 32. Passive Verb, made by the Verb substantive.
It is much more usual to make up the passive
verb by the verb substantive, as is done in most of
the modern languages of Europe, than to use the
passive inflection as explained in p. 261. For this
purpose the paradigm of the verb substantive is re-
quired: —
Verb substantive.
The verb substantive in Cornish, as in other
Indo-Germanic languages, has two roots; one of
these appears to have been the letter s, and the
other was the consonant b, interchanging with f
and w. Examples of the first in Latin and English
are sum, es, est, and am, art, is ; of the second,
fuiifore, and be, was. The Cornish, in some of its
forms, has lost the initial s, but it regains the sibi-
lant after mar, nyn, and some other words.
First division.
Present tense : —
of, I am, O 2049. on, we are, O 2024.
08, thou art, R 1822. ough, you are, R 196.
yu, he is, R 389. yns, O 1691,
1 "*■ are.
' } they
9 J
***> D 2353
The third person singular is varied to yw, D 2952 ; «*,
O 2214 ; ew, O 2572. All receive occasionally an ad-
dition at the beginning, becoming assof, yssof, ythof,
esof, sof, thof, &c. ; in the first three forms I see no
difference in signification, and the additions in such
cases are, I think, only variations of the verbal particles
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(delwedd F1227) (tudalen 278)
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£78
CORNISH GRAMMAR
aandy. Examples are, asson whansek, " wean de-
sirous," D 37 ; hukel ytkos ysethys, " high thoo art
seated," D 93 ; ynou colon asyw bem, "in my heart
is sorrow/' D 993a; yssyw hemma trueth brat, "this
is great sorrow/' D3183. I now believe that esof,
em, &c. are merely variations of these, though I have
rendered them usually by the past tense : see D 931,
351 1, R 1391. Sqf, 909, syu, and thof, tkos, thyu, &c.
follow certain particles, as mar, nyn, &c.
There are some other forms for the present tense ; ma,
"is," scarcely differs from yu: see O 1316,3561,
3633, R 2059. Us is like ma, but often implies 'who :'
O 638, 1059, D 1410, 1435, R2060; perhaps eus of
R316 may be the same word. We have usy in O
3693. Yma signifies ' there is/ O 410, 536, 775,
R 400, 1316; mons, O 3091, and ymons, O 1687,
3084, are the plurals of ma and yma.
Imperfect tense : —
est*, I was, O 313. esen, we were, R 1169, 3395.
eses, thou wast, O 900. esougk, ye were, D 333, R 3434.
est, he was, 1089. ens, they were, D 3681, 3694 ».
Preterite tense : —
0, "he was/' O 706, 809, R 1096, 3007.
The forms oma, " I am," D 755; 09a, D 1334, 099, D
1390, oge, O 1767, " thou art ;" ywe, O 1833, ugy,
R 1636, " he is ;" and I think, ony, u we are," O 59;
all these are either interrogative, or else they imply
contingencies such as belong to the subjunctive
mood.
Second division,
bones, 2299, bos, D 2494, "to be."
First tense : —
byt haf, D 1933
>'n \ I shall be.
\ O3111 /
befhqf,
* I believe the real paradigm of the Present tense would
be of, 09, yu : on, ough, yns; and of the Imperfect, en, €9, e:
en, eugh, ens; but both tenses affected rather to lengthen
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(delwedd F1228) (tudalen 279)
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VERBS.
879
5K2 14 * }tbon shalt be.
byfkyth, 1510 J
tyfhy he shall be, D 772.
befhyn, we shall be, 1655.
btfheugh, you shall be, D 767.
befhens, O 2307 •)
byfhons, 03093/^ 8haUbe '
As there is a present tense in the first division, this
tense is always, I think, future.
Second tense : —
bef, I should be, &c, O 2193.
bes, thou shouldst be, R 2442.
bytke\ D 1948 } he Bh0llld be '
ben, we should be, R 2423.
&«#*, ye should be, D 5, 28.
bens, they should be, D 852.
The forms as well as the signification of this tense are
confounded with those of the Fifth tense, and even of
the Fourth. I cannot satisfy myself with any division
of them.
Third tense : —
buf, buef, I was, R 1540, 2150.
bus, thou wast, D 1999.
bue, O 880, R 1443 -1
be, O *6 S 7, D 1154 J he WM>
buen, we were, O 709, R 1823.
beugh, bugh, you were, R 192, 2243.
bons, they were, D 521.
Fourth tense : —
by en, I should be, O 2120, R 1942.
byes, thou shouldst be, D 2683.
bye, he should be, D 846, 1592.
by en, we should be,
their forms in actual use. In a similar way the Greeks added
a syllable to the shorter forms of their verb substantive,
writing wrBa and 1j<r0a for c& and fc. Perhaps the Latin
esto and estote originated in a like principle.
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(delwedd F1229) (tudalen 280)
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280
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
byeugk, ye should be, 177.
byens, they should be.
The forms gyfye, "would take/' R966, and tkofhye,
"will" or "would go," R 2450, seem to be imitations
of this tense.
fifth tense: —
byf, beyf, I may or shall be, D 847, 2008.
by, thou mayst be, O 245, 2203.
bo, O 43, R 90 <i
6e,0396,iii2} hema y° r8hallbe -
ben, been, beyn, we may be, D 41, O 1973, 2699.
beugh, you may be, D 627.
fcm«, they may be, D 844, 899, 1546.
The same observation as is made above at the close of
the first division will apply here, in regard to the
forms byma, D 1013, befe, O 2220, btfa, D 905, beta,
D 690, bova, D 620, buve, O 864, byfhe, 1327, byse,
D 2908 ; and some others. Perhaps such additions
are sometimes made merely to fill up a verse, as in
bosa for bos, D 11 20.
Viet him be.
Imperative : —
byfh, be thou, O 134 1, 2616.
befhens, D 2374
bythens, D 794
befhon, let us be,
befhough, be ye, D 879.
befhens, let them be,
Throughout the second division of this verb I have
made the initial b ; but it occurs in the manuscript
much more frequently written with a v or /from the
influence of particles requiring a mutation, and fre-
quently where I see no reason for such change ; unless
it be that a particle is implied though not expressed,
as it is, I believe, the case in Welsh.
Examples of the passive verb made by help of
the verb substantive : —
a'n nef of danfenys, from heaven I am sent, 1372.
yth 08 ysethys, thou art seated, D 93.
yu gorhemmynnys fhy'n, it is commanded to us, O 1049.
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(delwedd F1230) (tudalen 281)
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VERBS.
281
buthys on ny, we are drowned, O 1705.
ynsplynsys, they are planted, O 3093.
befhaf lejhys, I shall be killed, O 596.
nyfyfhyth sylwys, thou shalt not be saved, 1510.
y fefhons gorrys, they shall be put, O 343.
guynys mayfitef, where I was pierced, R 1540.
helhys warbarth afuen, we were driven together, O 709.
yfyen lefkys, I should be killed, O 3130.
may fen guythys, that we may be preserved, D 41.
bos desesys, to be hurt, D 97.
bos rewardyys, to be rewarded, O 3301.
§. 33. A reflected verb is made, as in Welsh, by
prefixing the syllable ym 2 (em, om). The equiva-
lent in Armoric is en em.
Examples are frequent : — ymwanas, "he stabbed
himself/' R 2065, from the root guan ; emwyskys,
"he smote himself," R 2067, root guask; ym den,
"withdraw," O1377, root ten; ny y lions ymwe-
res, " cannot help themselves," O 1420, root gue-
re8; mar ny wreth ymamendye, "if thou do not
amend thyself," O 1526. Emblofh, in O 1661,
meaning " to fight," is probably from the verb
lathe, "to kill," something like the French se bat-
tre; though we have emlafhe y honan, "to kill
himself," in R 2073, where the writer perhaps
added the pronoun y honan to avoid the ambiguity
which might arise from the use of emlafhe, mean-
ing "to fight ;" as a Frenchman might say, il s'est
battv lui-mSme, meaning "he has beaten himself,"
while he would say, il s'est battu, when he wished
to be understood, " he fought."
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(delwedd F1231) (tudalen 282)
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888
CORNISH GRAMMAR,
§.84. IRREGULAR VERBS.
There are in Cornish some verbs irregular, which
are generally irregular in Welsh and Armoric also.
In going through the translation, I hare jotted
down a good many words which were at the time
doubtful, and out of them I hare been able to form
the following incomplete paradigms : they might
perhaps be completed by Welsh and Breton ana-
logy, and no doubt several additional forms may
be found, if the Cornish books be read through for
the purpose ; but I had no intention of venturing
on a Grammar when the work was begun, and have
not been able to supply the deficiencies since. I
have consequently only incomplete results to offer ;
but in the case of every word set down, one pass-
age at least is cited in which it occurs.
TO GIVE.
Ry, O 1801, 2606; rey, D 537.
First tense : —
rof, I give, R857. ren, (we give) D 2406.
reth, O 1814 \
reyth, D 472 / th0U «*■"•
re,R 3 87,674 1 he .
ret or rea, O 2770 J &
Second tense : —
ren, I would give (?) O 2739.
Third tense : —
res, D2495 \ Tmra
ryssys, thou gavest, D 522.
ros, he gave, D 1384, R 165. rosms, they gave, R 3601.
^r-^^w
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(delwedd F1232) (tudalen 283)
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IRREGULAR
VERBS. 283
Fifth tense : —
roEo, that he may give, O 1823.
rollons, that they may give, O 40.
Imperative : —
ro, give thou, O 2010, R 83.
roy, let him give, O 680, D 712.
ren, let us give, D 1389.
reugk, give ye, D 1362.
Participle present : —
ou ry, giving, O 2316.
Participle past : —
reys, given, D 1574.
TO BRING.
Dry, D 16, 273, 596.
First tense : —
draw, D3121 1 T , .
doro, D 1471 J 1 bnng '
Second tense : —
dregha, he would bring, R 403.
Third tense : —
dros, he brought, O in.
Fourth tense : —
drosen, we would have brought, D 1976.
Imperative : —
dro, O1947 \ K«««^«
doro, 1904 / bnng th0n '
drens, let him bring, O 1933.
dreugh, bring ye, 1066, D 2329.
Participle past : —
drey$, brought, D 2447, R 2328.
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(delwedd F1233) (tudalen 284)
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284
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
TO COME.
&***, O 791 ; dos, R 570.
First tense : —
dueth, R X178 \ ,. .
due, it comes, D 3961, R 3273.
desons, they come, D 1247.
Second tense :—
dogha, that it may come, D 2912.
Third tense : —
duyth, D 2022 1 j cam&
dueyth, R 1661 /
*%, R2568 1 ^^^
(feet, O 155 J
dtifA, R 2587 1 ,
anew, R 234 J
dutheugh, ye came, R 193.
We have ofcm duthe, " since I came/ 5 D 517, 524, a
subjunctive mood, as in gruge : see the verb gruthyl
in p. 275.
Imperative : —
dus, O 2779
dues, R 308
dun, let us come, R2305.
deugk, come ye, R 156, 1761.
V come thou.
Participle : —
des, come, D 352.
TO GO.
Mones, O 2030, D 232 ; mos, O 1603.
First tense : —
qf,lgo, O339.
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(delwedd F1234) (tudalen 285)
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IRREGULAR
VERBS. 286
eth, thou goest, O 2295, R 85 x.
a, he goes, R2197.
en, we go, D 2997, R 2391.
«0*.yego, O2185.
Generally, yfhqf, yfheth, &c.
Second tense : —
««i,0 3 6 4 1
eUen, O 2193 f 1 8hould «°-
Third tense : —
yth, I went, O 260, D 145.
etheugh, ye went, O 2086.
Fifth tense : —
eUo, (when) he shall go, R 1563.
Imperative : —
he, go thou, D 649.
eugh, go ye, R 179.
ens, let them go, D 173, R 2644.
TO BEAR or CARRY.
Don, D 2584, R 1226, 1241; degy, D 2313.
First tense : —
dek, R 2235, deg, O 903, 2814, he shall carry.
Third tense : —
dug, O 268, dulc, O 2244, R 2554, he carried.
Fifth tense :—
dago, that he may carry, R2189.
Imperative : —
dok, D 1272, 2616 -\
dog, O 1945, 2200 L carry thou.
doga, O 1298 -I
degyns, let him carry, O 32, 1052, 159 1.
degeugh, carry ye, O 2810, R 2184.
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(delwedd F1235) (tudalen 286)
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286
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
Participle present : —
ou toon, O 2820 1
0«*m,O89a J Cmymg '
Past:—
degys, carried, O 1315*
TO KNOW.
gofhfos, R468; gof^fes, R 195; gojhvos, O 2098; govos,
O 2102.
Present tense : —
gon, I know, R 1547.
gor, he knows, R 256.
gofhough, ye know, R 2445.
gofhons, they know, D 2774.
Future tense : —
gotWytty* thou shalt know, R 2381.
^%^D8 4 9l he8haUknow .
govyfh, O 188 J
gottyefheugh, ye shall know, R 1574.
These tenses are separated as in Welsh, where we have
gvm, gwr, as a present tense, and gwybydd,gwybyddmch,
as a future. They are analogous to the two divisions
of the verb substantive.
Second tense : —
gofhen, I did know, O 363.
^k»,D8 4 8 \ ^u didst know.
gofhas, D 2181 J
guyfhen, we did know, D 1914.
Fourth tense : —
gofltfen, (if) we had known, R 2542.
gothfons, (if) they had known, D 2776.
Fifth tense : —
gofhefqf, (if) I know, (?) R 719.
goftfo, (if) he know, O 190.
J
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(delwedd F1236) (tudalen 287)
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IRREGULAR
VERBS. 887
In re woffe, " may he know," O 530, we hare the
fifth, or second tense, converted into an imperative
or optative by the verbal particle re. See p. 265.
Woffe ia=gotkfe.
TO HAVE.
There is no verb in the Celtic language gene-
rally corresponding with the verb u to have ;" in
Cornish as in Welsh, the deficiency is sometimes
supplied by cafus, "to take or find;" but the
more usual substitute is like the Latin est pro
habeo. We find thus yma fhymmo (est mihi), " I
have," D 494; mar a'm be (si mihifuerit)* "if I
have," O 396 ; ncCm byfh ores (non mihi est pax\
"I have no peace," R1133. In most cases the
verb is in the form fyfh, the first tense of bos, as in
my a fyfh, ty a fyth, D 128, " I shall have, thou
shalt have," &c. The Rev. R. Williams suggests
that this may be " I possess," &c. from a root tnefh,
the Welsh meddu; and this would be probable, the
mutation of m and b being equally fovv; but the
explanation will not suffice for the cases where the
form is byth. I am inclined to think that the root
is always bos ; — that frequently the pronoun in the
third form (§. 16. p. 243) was added to that in the
first form, as in why a's byfh (vos vobis erii), "you
shall have," O 2586, D 3075, R 612, 672, ny*m
bes (=ny'm byth, non mihi est), "I have not,"
17 1 ; — and that the sentiment of the real value of
the word was sometimes lost, so that ambyth and
asbyth were used like new verbs, as in why asbe-
fheyth, " you shall have," D 33, and ny ambyfh, "we
shall have," O 1714. I suppose ny'm bus, R 1517,
2210, "I have not," to be a variant spelling of
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(delwedd F1237) (tudalen 288)
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888
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
ntfm byfh; — na'm bes, 1 884, to be the same, with
a change of the negative ; — and a'mbues, D 3392,
to be a'mbyth (mihi est) ; — as hues, D 1970, and
aga8 bus, R 2154, "you have," will be a's byfh.
Am been, "which I have/' 2613, and ma'm
vefhen, "that I may have/' 1958, are doubtful;
my a'n byfh, " I will have it/' D 1 187, may be read
vyfh, from mefh, to possess/' the v and 6 are very
much alike in the Manuscript. I cannot explain ny
gen byen ny, "we should not have/' of R 1029,
except by reading bye for byen. A bew of D 2853,
and c?8 pew, D 2855, 2858, are probably cognate
with the Welsh piau, " to own ;" as also ty a bew,
" thou shalt have/' O 974, which I have translated
incorrectly. A bywfy, "which thou possessest,"
0581, and a bewe, "which he possessed/ 1 O
2393, are probably from the same verb.
Another substitute for the verb "to have** is
found in ny*8 teve, 2597, D 508, na's teve,
D 2647, ny*8 tevyfh, O 300, 399, 1808, 18 16,
a y 8 tefo, D 788, a?8 tevyt, 2328. In all these
I think the root is tef or tev, r to grow' or 'come/
with the pronoun "her" or "them;" and that
if the meaning were " he shall have/' instead of
" she or they shall have/' we should find a'n te-
Jyfh; but this does not occur. In my note to
2597, vol. I. p. 197, the conjecture about oeve
appears wrong, and the version is far from literal :
tus, meaning "men/' is always considered gram-
matically as a feminine singular, and 8 of ntf*
agrees with it ; I should therefore have rendered,
"not have come to any man." The curious de-
fective Armoric verb devout, " to have," is clearly
analogous to that under consideration, and its forms
deft and deuz or deuezo, are related to teve and
tevyfh. ' See Legonidec's Grammar, p. 82.
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(delwedd F1238) (tudalen 289)
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ADVERBS.
S89
ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, and CON-
JUNCTIONS.
The following list of Adverbs, Prepositions, and
Conjunctions is incomplete, but it is hoped that it
will be found useful; phrases from the Ordinalia,
exemplifying the use of each particle, are added in
every case,
§. 35. ADVERBS.
coul, cowal, quite.
marrow cowal ty a vyfh, killed quite thou shaft be, O 3702.
bones an temple eoul wrys, the temple to be quite done,
O 2581.
kepar, " like, as," takes ha with a substantive, and
del with a verb.
kepar ha ***** hke doge, R 173.
kepar ha den, like a god, O 390.
kepar ha my, like me, O 3350.
kepar del ve, as it was, O 872.
kepar del vynny, as thpu wilt, O 1046.
But we find
kepar hag on, as we are, O 894.
kepar ha me a wela* as I saw, R 1076.
and in one ease,
kepar ha del leverys, as I said, P 2690.
fattel*, fatel, fettel, fettyl, how.
fattel duthys yn ban, how didst thou come up ? R 2568.
ny wonfaiel yl wharf 09, 1 know not bow it can be, R 229.
fettel aUaf vy crygy, how can I believe ? R 1423.
prederys peb fettyl alio gorfenne, let all think how it can
end, P 228.
prak, prog, pragh, why.
prak y wreta fhymmo amme, why dost thou kiss me?
D1105.
prak y'f gmyekyth, why dost thou wear it ? R 2549*
O
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(delwedd F1239) (tudalen 290)
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«90
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
pragh yfh kembrenkygh, why do ye lead? D 204.
prog yfh yn the fhyllas rvf A, why are thy garments red ?
R 2567.
maga 2 , maga , as.
maga whyn (4*9%) avef am leth, as white as the milk,
D 3138.
maga tek byfhquetk del fie, as fair as ever he was, R 1659.
maga ta, "as well," is used in the sense of "also,"
as in English :— »
den ha best magata, man and beast also, O 995.
ha war {he treys magata, and on thy feet also, D 488.
liamna, almost.
uamnag of pur fhal, I an} almost quite blind, O 1056,
namna'n dalias, almost blinded us, R 42.
jren, else.
ken efa vara ou shyndye, else he will spit at me, O 2133.
bo ken deaul ytr, or else he is a devil, R 2104.
When the sentence is negative, we find nahen (na ken),
although the negation be otherwise expressed ; as
nahen na grys, think not otherwise, R 2038. See
also R1126.
Qt y ota, otte, wetta, welte, see, behold.
ot omma menefh huhel, see here a high mountain, D 123.
ot omme an guas, see here the fellow, R 1803.
ota saw bos, see the load of food, O 1053.
otte (he vam, behold thy mother, D 292,8.
ow ottoma *, see with me (?) R 2177.
a wetta ny, dost thou see us ? D 2050.
a welte fhefiogh, seest thou thy son ? D 2925.
The occurrence of these last forms shews the derivation
from the verb.
yn wefh, yn weyfh, also.
ha nefyn weft, and heaven also, D 290.
map deu os ha den yn weyth, son of God thou art and man
likewise, D 278.
» See the note to O 882, in p. 207 of the Ordinalia, vol II.
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(delwedd F1240) (tudalen 291)
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ADVERBS.
891
martesen, perhaps.
yn ur-na martesen, in that hoar perhaps, D 9870.
See the note to this passage in p. 213, vol. IL Ordinalia.
byteffyn8, bytygynz, nevertheless.
saw bytygyns cresough why, but nevertheless believe ye,
R 1300.
saw bytegyns ragon ny, but nevertheless for us, R 980.
See also R 1016.
re 2 , too much.
$hofho byny vye re, for him never would it be too much.
R 3056.
re hyr, too long, O 2548.
re got {cot), too short, O 2540.
moghya, moghye, moghe, most.
neb may ft moghya geffys, he who is forgiven most, D 5 13.
See D 510, 514.
ketella, kettella, so.
nep a rtlla yn ketella, whoever has done so, 2240.
yn ketteUa ny a vyn, so we will, D 243.
mar" 1 , so.
mar {ha (da), so good, O 91a.
mar ger (ker), so dear, O 612.
pe feste mar bel (pel), where hast thou been so long,
477-
pur*, very.
pur tha (da), .very good, O 257a.
pur thai {dal), very blind, O 1056.
pur wyr (guyr), very true, R 1004.
bras, very, used after the adjective.
del yu efgaUosek bras, as he is very powerful, 1494.
{he cojon yw cales bras, thy heart is very hard, O 1525. .
/est, very, also after the adjective.
wolcumfest, very welcome, p 1207.
yeynfest yu an awel, very cold is the weather, D 1209.
O 2
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(delwedd F1241) (tudalen 292)
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29S
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
Adverbs of place.
omma, omme, umma, here.
fatel fkufheugh why omma, how did ye come here, R 193.
ot omme an guas, see here the fellow, R 1803.
Adam ottensy umma, Adam, behold her here, 102.
ena, eno, there.
ena yn dour, there in the water, R 2196.
eno ny a*n recevas, there we received him, R 2339.
pie (=pa le) 9 where.
ny won pie fe, I know not where it may be, Q 11 12.
pie me, where is it ? R 46,
a ves, outside.
agy, inside.
aves hag agy, without and within, O 953.
Mes (ves), the Welsh mass, forms also the following ad-
verbs: —
fhe ves, away.
yn mes, out.
gaUas an glow the ves, the rain is gone away, O 1097.
da yu yn mes dyUo bran, it is good to send out a crow,
O1099.
cUena, alene, thence.
alemma, hence.
These adverbs are really phrases meaning " from that
place," and " from this place," and I have often so
divided them, though they are not distinguished in
that way in the Manuscript. See R 2138, D 649,
O 1945.
aber, aberth, aberveth, berth* within.
th'y worre aber yn befh, to put him within the grave
R2108. %
aberth yn beyfh, within the grave, R 2083.
dun aberveth, let us come inside, O 1062.
berth yn bys-ma, within this world, R 86q.
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(delwedd F1242) (tudalen 293)
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ADVERBS.
«9S
adro, around.
tra ny vyfh yn pow adro, there is not. a thing in the
country round, O 189.
a'* bets ol adro, of the world ail around, O 404.
adru8, adrues, athwart, across, against.
adrus musury, measure athwart, O 393.
tresters ty a pyn adrus, beams thou shalt nail across,
O964.
kyn whrytty cous adrues, though thou do speak against it,
R 1792.
a hys, a keys, along,
groweth a hys, lie at length, O 653.
growetk a keys, lie along, O 1334.
oges, near.
na mo* oges %h#n wefhen, nor go near to the tree, 184.
na nyl oges nag yn pel, not one near nor at a distance,
O 1141.
pel, far.
yma moysespel gyUys, Moses is far gone, 1682.
a rag, in front.
war an brest a rag, on the breast in front, O 2717.
yn rag, forward, forth.
deugh yn rag hetep onan, come forward every one, O 2683.
das yn rag, come forth, O 2403.
yn kergh, on, away.
he yn kergh dywhans, go away quickly, R 116.
a'n befh yn hergh gyUys, gone away from the tomb, R 809.
yn ban, up.
bynytha na thne yn ban, he will never come up, R 2139.
Adam safyn ban, Adam, stand up, O 65.
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(delwedd F1243) (tudalen 294)
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294
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
Adverbs of time,
ytho, now, then.
ythopyth yu (he cusyl, now what is thy advice ? R 25.
ytho fhy'm knar, now tell me, R 787.
ytho fhy'nny yth hevel, then to ns it appears, D 1489.
This appears to be rather the conjunction equivalent to
the French or, than the true adverb of time : as in the
Scripture phrase, " Now it came to pass." I am not
quite sure that this is not the case often with the fol-
lowing also.
lemyn, lemmyn, lemman, now.
lemmyn a abesteleth, now, O apostles ! R 893.
lemyn sttr yth yu eun hys, now, surely it is the right
length, O 2525.
lemyn efyu agan guas, now he is our fellow, O 910.
lemman warbarth ow fieghys, now together, my children,
D307.
yn tor-ma, in this time, now.
na vo marow yn tor-ma, that he be not killed now, D 2446.
agensow, agynsow, lately} just now.
me a*n guelas agynsow, I saw him recently, R 896.
agensow my a'u guelas, I saw him recently, R 91 1.
avar, early.
dewethes, late.
ha dewethes hag avar, both late and early, O 629.
ha deug avar, and come early, D 3239.
by nary, benary, for ever.
yn ponvotter venary, in trouble for ever, O 898.
ny f th ty nahaf by nary, I will not deny thee ever, D 907.
bynyfha, never more.
bynyfha ny \hue yn ban, never will he come up, R 2139.
my ny vennaf growethe bynytha, I will never more lie
down, O 625.
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(delwedd F1244) (tudalen 295)
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ADVERBS.
295
ivfre, neffre, ever.
*&* yfffi <*>**> «ver shall be enmity, O 314.
nefire fkgso re bo, ever be it on thee, O 461.
thegoue a brefnejre, thy speech proves ever, D X408.
avorow, to-morrow.
gueytgeugh bones aoorow, take care to be to-morrow,
O 2299.
deug avar aoorow, come early to-morrow, D 3240.
htfheu, hyfhew, to-day.
na may com fhy'm hyfhew, no more talk to me to-day,
R 1940.
whefh bys hyfhew, yet till to-day, R 1550.
ajhesempys, dyssempys, &c., immediately.
afhysempys thu'm tage, immediately to choak me, D 1528.
toth, touth, haste.
This word appears to be a noun, used in combination
adverbially.
010 treble ftofto touth da, turning from him speedily,
(i. e. good haste) D 558.
heeth ou boot touth to, reach my axe quickly, O 1001.
(ho'm gurek hctm flehe$ totta, to my wife and children
speedily, O 1036. (Totta = toth ta.)
oowyth dun toth da, companion, let us come quickly,
D643.
In D 660 we have gans touth bras, " with great haste,"
shewing that the word is a substantive; and in D 662
toth men, of the same meaning, but which I do not
understand.
kettoth, ketothy as soon as,
kettoth an ger, as soon as the word, O 1908.
kettoth ha 9 n ger, as soon as the word, R 1970.
ketoth ha'n ger, as soon as the word, O 2272.
arte, again.
gorryn efyn befh arte, let us put him into the grave again,
R 2100.
ny 9 m guelyth arte, thou shalt not see me again, O 244*
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(delwedd F1245) (tudalen 296)
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296
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
solafhyth, solabrys, some time ago.
I find this compound adverb half a dozen times; the
root is clearly sol, and the addition is prys, " time,"
or dyfh, " day." See solabrys, O 2332 ; solabrcys,
O 2747; soUabreys, D 746; solafhythyO 2612; sola-
(keth, R 1929, and soUafhyth, R 2380.
kyns, before.
teke ages kyn$ y van, fairer than it stood before, D 348.
y fue kyns y vos gurys, there were, before it was done,
D350.
warlergh, afterwards.
sau me warlergh drehevel, but I, risen afterwards, D 896.
wliare, wharre> soon.
ha wkare a, and will soon go, O 642.
may tewe an tan wharre, that the fire may fight soon, D 1221.
yn makes an adverb of a substantive or adjective ;
sometimes it is yd 2 , sometimes yn°, and sometimes
no change is made.
yn sur, surely, R 529.
yn teffry, really, R 565.
yn pur deffry, very really, D 300.
yn tyen, entirely, O 2589.
yn guyr, truly, O 2541.
yn len, faithfully, O 2608.
yn ta 9 well, O 2523.
the ierusalem ynfen, to Jerusalem quite, O 1948.
ynfen guren ny, quite let us do, R 1242.
[yn fen = to the end.]
ynfelen, as a felon, O 2653.
yn kettep guas, every fellow, D 1350.
§. 86. PREPOSITIONS.
a 2 , of or from. (See §. 17, p. 247.)
luen a byte (pyte), full of pity, O 2369.
a pup squythens y sawye, from all weariness cure him,
I>477-
terrys ol a'y le, broken all from its place, D 356.
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(delwedd F1246) (tudalen 297)
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PREPOSITIONS.
297
adre, adres, adro, around.
adrespow, around the country, R 1477.
adre thefhe, around them, O 3097.
adro \ho(ho, around it, O 2101.
adrp {he(hy, around it (feminine), O 778.
a ffV> affty* within ; (followed by the.)
agy (he lysi, in the lists, R 223.
agy (he ewhe an geyfh, within the evening of the day,
R275.
agey fhe'n cyte, within the city, D 627.
athyworthj fhyworth, (keworth, from.
kyns denas athyworto, before withdrawing from it, O 1401.
my a'spren (hyworthys, I will buy it of thee, D 1555.
thyworth ow pen, from my head, D 1 145.
(heworth urry re (huk, hast taken from Uriah, O 2244.
afhyrag, in presence of.
afhgragough me apys, before you I pray, D 14 14.
afhyragqfmy re weles, I have seen before me, O 1955.
d-ugh, over.
nyg a-ugh luespow, fly over many countries, 1136.
(he tacky'e a-ugh y pen, to fasten it over his head, D 2808.
avel, as, like.
avel gos, like blood, R 2500.
avel dewow, like gods, 178.
avel servant, like a servant, D 804.
awos, notwithstanding, because of.
awos ol ow gallos, notwithstanding all my power, D 53.
awos (he fheu na'y vestry, notwithstanding thy god and hi*
power, O 2738.
ny yl bos awos an beys, it cannot be for the world, R 247 1 .
awos deu, for God's sake, O 2564.
bys, as far as.
bys yn ierusalem he, unto Jerusalem gtt, O 1928.
bys yn y chy, even to his house, D 648.
bys defhfyn, till the last day, D 724.
03
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(delwedd F1247) (tudalen 298)
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298
CORNISH GRAMMAU.
dan, under.
yn dan gen, under the chin, O 371a.
a than fhe glok, from under thy cloak, D 2683.
yn dan an ckek, under the kettle, R 139.
dre, for, by, through. (See §. 17, p. 247.)
ky a*n gruk dre kerense, she did it for love, D 549.
dre owfynys, through my pains, D 45.
dre un venen wharvefhys, wrought by a woman, O 626.
kentrow dre ow thrys, nails through my feet, R 2587.
dres, dreys, over, beyond.
dres dyfen ou arlufh ker, beyond the prohibition of my dear
Lord, 172.
ow mos drespow, going over the country, R 1511.
dreys dour tyber, through the river Tiber, R 2214.
er, by.
er an treys, by the feet, R 2082.
er fhefyth, on thy faith, 1441.
er dn fhewen, by the gods, O 2651.
Er appears to be identical with or and war ; see note to
D 202, voL I. p. 236.
erbyn, against, towards. (Lat. obviam.)
erbyn a laha, against law, D 572.
erbyn haf, against summer, O 31.
Erbyn, with a pronoun, receives the pronoun between
er and byn, making the usual mutations ; as erowfyn,
R 2573; er y byn, D 235. See §. 11. p. 234.
gans, with, (accompanying.) (See §. 17, p. 247.)
gone ow tas, with my father, D 727.
*lanters gone gohw, lanterns with light, D 609;
gans, by, with, (instrument, manner, cause, agency.)
gans ow deu lagas me a wel, with my eyes I see, D 410.
gans myyn gureugh hy knoukye, with stones strike her,
O 2694.
gans peder ha iowan parys, by Peter and John prepared,
D 700.
gans touth bras, with great speed, D 660.
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(delwedd F1248) (tudalen 299)
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PREPOSITIONS.
«99
hep 2 .
y a tremyn hep {hanger, they shall pan without danger,
1615.
hep (haul, without doubt, O 2668.
hep worfen, without end, D 1562.
herwyfh, herwefh, according to.
herwyfh y volungeth ef, according to hit will, O 1320*
herweth {he grath, according to thy grace, O 2353.
kyns 1 , before.
kyns pen try dyfh, before the end of three days, D 347.
hyns vyttyn, before morning, O 1644.
lemmpn, except.
nag ens deu byth lemmyn ef, there are no gods except him,
R 175*.
mamas, except
war pep ol mamas ty, over all but thee, O 948.
mes, yn mes, out of.
greugh y tome mes a'n dour, drag him out of the water*
R 223a.
tynneugh yn mes agon temple, drag out of our temple,
O 3693;
mar seugh mes a dre, if you go from home, O 2185.
rag, rak, for, because of. (See §. 17, p. 346.)
rak eun kerenge, for real love, D 483.
rah ow ancly{hyas, for my burial, D 548.
rak the sermjs, for thy service, D 613.
teweugh rak methi silence for shame, R 14956
yw ou colon trogh rag agas cons, my heart is broken be-
cause of your talk, R 1365.
rag {he offryn ker, because of thy dear bffering, O 567.
rag, from.
guy thy s rak an bylen, preserved from the evil one, D 41.
guyth vy rak an tout, preserve me from the devil, R 1564.
guythe efrag tarofvan, preserve it from iantoms, O 2364;
a rak, before, in presence of.
a rak pilot, before Pilate, R 2593.
a rak agon lagasow, before our eyes, R 1492.
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(delwedd F1249) (tudalen 300)
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300
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
r *> bjr> (swearing.)
re totyw, by Jove, 1532.
re synt iovyn, by Saint Jove, R 349.
re dm an tas, by God the Father, O 1919.
ryp, beside, near.
ryp ihesu eryst gorrys, put beside Jesus Christ, R 266.
me a gosh ryp y pen, I will sleep by his head, R 418.
In the line yn plas us omma rybon, D 460, we have
clearly the preposition ryp joined to the pronoun of
the 1st pen. plural : rybon, " beside us."
saw, exqept, without.
saw y ober ha'y thyskes, without his work and his teaching,
DS7-
ny hynwys (hy'm saw pedar, he named none to me except
Peter, R 916.
tan, by.
tan oufeth, on my faith, O 2534.
(Not found elsewhere.)
the, to. (See §. 17, p. 247.)
thyworth, fheworth, from. See a$hywvrth.
trogha, troha, towards.
stop an wefken trogka 9 n dor 9 bend the tree towards the
ground, O 201.
fystyn trogha parathys, hasten towards Paradise, O 332.
troha ken pow, towards another country, O 344.
fystynyugh troha 9 n daras 9 hasten towards the door, O 349.
war*, upon. (See §. 17, p. 247.)
war venefh (mene(h), upon a mountain, 12B1.
war beyn (peyn) cregy, on pain of hanging, O 2280.
war thu (du), to God, D 40, 357.
war tyr veneges, on blessed ground, 1407.
warlergh, after, according to, (receives a governed
pronoun in the middle, like erbyn.)
warlergh {he gussuUyow, after thy counsels, O 2269.
war the lergh owth ymwefhe, craving after thee, R 1170.
war aga lergh fptynyn, after them let us hasten, 1641.
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(delwedd F1250) (tudalen 301)
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PREPOSITIONS.
801
worthy at, to, against. (See §. 17, p. 248.)
the tros worth men, thy foot against a stone, D 98.
worth an trey tor, to the traitor, D 1449.
wose, woge, after.
tyihyn wose hemma, a week after this, O 1026.
woge soper, after supper, D 834.
wosl*. (Not found elsewhere.)
wostaUeth na wostewefh, at first, nor at last, O 276a.
This may he equivalent to war + dalleth, and war + de-
wefhj compare wor tywefh, D 1818.
yn> in, into. (See §. J 7, p. 246.)
nyn sa yn agas ganow, it goes not into your mouth,
O 1913.
yn ou enef, in my soul* D load.
yn pup termyn, at all times, D 1040.
yntre, ynter, among, between.
yntre y (hyns (dyne) ha'y davas (tavas), between his teeth
and his tongue, O 826.
yntre an mor ha'n tyryow, between the sea and the lands,
O26.
yntre and ynter take fk before a pronoun, like the pre-
positions enumerated in §. 17.
yntretho ha'y gowethe, between him and his companions,
D1288.
yntrefhe gasaf ow ras, among them I leave my grace,
R 1584.
yntrethon, between us, O 936.
ol ores yntrethough, all peace among you, R 2433.
me a fhybarth ynterfhogh, I will divide between ye, D 2325.
SOS CORNISH GRAMMAR.
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(delwedd F1251) (tudalen 302)
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§.87.
CONJUNCTIONS.
aban, since, because.
aban ywe yn detla, sinoe it is to, D 1953.
aban golste worty hy, because thou hearkenedst to her,
O269.
06011 na vynta cresy, since thou wilt not believe, O 241.
ages, es t ys, eys, than.
teke ages kyns, fairer than before, D 348.
tekke alter es del us gene*, a fairer altar than such as is
with us, O1179.
gueth ys ky t worse than a dog, R 2026.
kacre mernans eys emiafhe, a more cruel death than self-
killing, R 2073.
Es and ages take suffixed pronouns, as do the prepo-
sitions enumerated in §. 17.
ke* deu agesos, another God than thou, R 2477.
ken arhqh agesso ef, another Lord than him, 1789.
y fynnafvy mos pella esough, I will go further than you,
R 1299.
ken agesough, other than you, O 2357.
bo, or.
bo ke* deaul yw, or else he is a- devil, R 2104.
drefen, because.
drefen na fynnytk crygy, because thou wilt not believe,
R1106.
drefen u* wyth the hemoel, because of once calling on thee,
O 2724.
erna, until.
erna wreUo tremene, until she be dead, 4695.
erna'n prenny, until thou pay for it, O 2653.
ha, and.
map ha tas, Son and Father, D 297.
ou tus hammy (ha my), my people and me, O 971.
Takes g before a vowel, as, hag yn tyr, and in the earth,
O 27 ; hag ef ha kemmys, both he and as many as,
R 1760.
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(delwedd F1252) (tudalen 303)
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CONJUNCTIONS.
803
hedre, whilst, as long as.
hedre vyyn oupredery, whilst I am considering, O 2035.
hedre veyn beu, as long as I am living, D 1 15.
hedre vy may fo anken, until it be that death is, O 276.
hedre vo yn (he herwyfh, as long as it is in thy power,
O 1464.
hedre vyugh byu, as long as ye are living, O 2349.
hedre vyns y yn ou aulas, as long as they shall be 1 in my
kingdom, O 1503.
iyn, ken, though.
hynfe terry s, though it be broken,' D 354;
ken nag of guy to, though I am not worthy, D 48 1;
kyn wreUo son, though he should make a noise, R 2016;
kettel, when;
kettel tersys an b'ara, when thou didst break the bread,
R1318.
- kettel fhueth er agon pyn, when he came to meet us,
R 1329.
lemmyn, but.
nyn syu gulan lemmyn mostys, it is not clean bnt dirty,
R 1927.
lemmyn yn tan bos cuthys, but in fire to be covered, R 2326.
ma, that.
py$ e ma*n danfonno; pray him that he send him; R 1620.
ma na wofhfo gorthybyi that he may not know how to re-
ply, D 1660.
ma gas bo, that it be to you (that you may have), D 226.
mar°, tnara , if.
mar qureugh (gureugh) ou voytas, if ye do seek me, D 1121.
mar a'n peso/ ef, if I pray him, D 1 166.
mara keusysfalsury, if I spoke falsehood, D 1271.
mora pethe (bethe) lei iuggys, if he be fairly judged, D 1344.
mora qureta (gureta), if thou dost, D 1385.
Before the verb substantive, and some others with an
initial vowel, mar takes s or th, which apparently had
nearly the same sound; (see §. 4. p. 224); as mar syu,
" if he is," R 520 ; mar sos, "if thou art," D 60 ;
mar seth, "if thdu go," O 2652 ; mar seugh, "if you
go," O 2185 ; mar thes, " if thou be," O 608. Mara
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(delwedd F1253) (tudalen 304)
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304
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
is frequently used in this case : mora syw, " if it be,"
O 2563, R828 ; mora sethe, " if he be gone/' R 538.
The Manuscript is not constant in dividing the words,
and I have also been very uncertain about it in the
text : I should now be inclined to join the * or th to
the verb, considering it, in the verb-substantive at
least, to be a restoration of the original sibilant. See
p. 277.
Perhaps we should always write mar a divided; the
division is complete in R 2542, two words inter-
vening : mar fur torment a cofhfen, "if we had known
the cruel torment."
marnes, mats, unless.
marnes drefhos vernona, unless by thee Veronica, R 2220.
mars are mur our, unless by much gold, R 1964.
mars cryst a weres, unless Christ helps, R 2132.
mas in R 47 and O 1504 may be put for mars.
may, that.
may tewe an tan wharre, that the fire may kindle soon,
D1221.
mes, but.
mes mora keusys yn lei, but if I have spoken truly, D 1273.
pan*, when, since.
han vyrwyf (myrwyf), when I die, D 227.
pan cam worthybys, when he answered rudely, D 1403.
pan fkeugh marfreth, when you come so bold, D 1115.*
Pan appears to be used also in the way of deprecation,
as,
govy pan y'n gruga, wo is me that I did it ! D 1434.
ellas vythpan ruk cole, alas ! that I ever listened, O 626.
rag, rak, ragh, for, because.
rag pur (ha eto, for it is very goed, O 2572.
ragh map an pla, for the son of evil, D 10.
rak the vones dyvythys, for that thou art come, D 280.
py,or.
pynak vo lettrys py lek, whether he be lettered or lay,
D681.
* This is probably a present tense of the verb dones, ' to
come*'
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(delwedd F1254) (tudalen 305)
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CONSTRUCTION.
805
yn nep bos tewl py yn sorn, in some bush, hole, or in a
corner, R 539.
nep a serf py a fheber, he who serves, or who eats, D 799.
sau, saw, but.
sau dystogh hy a py(h due, but soon it will be done, O 2178.
sau an ethyn byneges, but the blessed birds, O 1067.
saw bytegyns ragon ny, but nevertheless for us, R 980.
§. 38. CONSTRUCTION.
The few observations collected while making the
version of the Dramas are too desultory to admit of
the name of Syntax; much of what might pass
under that name is incorporated with the preceding
pages, and the few remaining observations are set
down here without much pretension to system. It
may be observed once for all, that the exigencies of
metre have apparently compelled thq author of
these Dramatic Writings to such inversions and ir-
regularities as are met with in all earlier attempts
at metrical composition.
When a transitive verb governs an accusative
substantive, the pronoun corresponding with the
substantive is often added, as, me a's ygor an dar-
asow, R 638, literally, "I will open them the
doors •" an mernans me a'n kymmer, O 1332, " the
death I will take it ;" ha henna ny a > n guylvyth,
R 53> Ci ^d that we shall see it ;" an gorhel my
a'n gura, 966, " the ship I will make it."
When a verb which has a plural subject comes
before the subject, it does not agree with it, but is
put in the singular : as, y jyth agan enefow, " our
souls shall be," D 75 ; re'n kergho an dewolow,
"may the devils fetch him*" R 2277.
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(delwedd F1255) (tudalen 306)
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806
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
When a verb in the infinitive mood follows a
verb implying motion, it is commonly preceded by
fa, as in English by the corresponding particle
"to:" as,
dmn ny fhe vera*, let us come to see, O 2335.
dmn the gyrha*, let us come to fetch, O 2371*
mot the vyra*, to go to see, D 1399;
eugh fh'y drehy, go to cut it, O 3505.
deu a'm danfonas the wofyn, God sent me to ask, O 1431.
But we have also rag, as in dun rag offrynna, "let us
come to offer," 1307. Dun, ' come,' in these cases is
like the English * come along/ where other languages
use 'go.'
When the infinitive expresses the object or aim
of a verb going before, it is preceded by rag, corre-
sponding with the French pour, and our own vulgar
"for:" as*
gorre an prynner rag lesky an sacryfys, put the wood
(for) to burn the sacrifice, O 1324. .
lafurye a wra rak dry den, he will labour to bring man,
D16.
ny a vyn mo* rak y worthe, we will go to worship him,
D236.
After an auxiliary vdrb the infinitive comes im-
mediately, without any preposition : as,
mar mynnyih hy dystrewy, if thou wilt destroy her, O 2675.
ny vennaf cafus le, I will not take less, D 594.
na aUaf kerfhes, nor can I go on, O 374.
ma yllyn mos, that we may go, D 708.
But we have also
mennafthe terry, I will break, D 485.
and sometimes there is no preposition where we
should expect to find the; as,
me a'fh py* agon savoy e, I pray thee to save us, D 272.
Instead of using the conjunction "that" with
another verb in the indicative mood, as in most
European languages* it is usual to put the second
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(delwedd F1256) (tudalen 307)
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CONSTRUCTION.
807
verb in the infinitive preceded by the personal pro-
noun, as is common in Latin :
ha cons ef fhe fhasserhy, and say that he has risen, R 34.
martk a'm bues ty fhe leverel folneth, it is a wonder to me
that thou should8t speak folly, R 961.
nyn $a y'm colon why fhe geusel, it goes not into my heart,
(i. e. I do not believe) that you have spoken, R 148 1*
del won fhe bo$, as I know thee to be, R 859.
¥he subjunctive mood is used in its natural signi-
fication: that is to say, whenever the verb expresses
an uncertainty, or expectation, or contingency of
any sort, without regard to any conjunction pre-
ceding; thus Mary Magdalene says, ken nag of
guywy " though I am not worthy/' D 481, in the
indicative mood, acknowledging her own unworthl-
ness ; but the gaoler directs his servant to put
Pilate in prison, hyn wreUo son, " though he may
make a noise," R 2016; and this notwithstanding
both verbs are preceded by the same conjunction : the
French language would use the subjunctive in both
cases ; quoiqueje sois, and quoiqu'il fosse. So del
os luen a ras 9 "as thou art full of grace," O 106,
in the indicative, expressing a full belief, and del
y'm kyrry, "as thou lovest me," ^3^, in the sub-
junctive, where a ddubt is implied. This is however
not always observed; the Cornish writers were
hardly skilled enough in composition to be always
accurately guided, and rhyme or metre was fre-
quently exigent. The following examples of the
subjunctive mood will suffice to give an insight into
its use.
er na wrello tremene, (beat her) until she be dead, O 369$.
er na'n prenny, (thou shalt not get away) until thou pay for
it, O 2653.
kynfe an temple dystvrys, though the temple were destroy-
ed, D 365.
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(delwedd F1257) (tudalen 308)
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808
CORNISH GRAMMAR.
may kyllgfy faffo, (give me a sword) that I may kill him,
R 1969.
pys e fhy'tn ma'n danfoimo, pray him that he send him to
me, R 1620.
ma na wofhfo, that he shall not know, D 1660.
dre clethe nep a vewo, he who lives by the sword, D 1158.
NOTE.
Since the preceding sheets were printed, the following forms
have been noticed in the irregular verbs : —
In p. 284. ist tense, deugh, ye come, D 1115.
detkons, they come, Pas. 258, 1.
Imperative, deug, come ye, R 3239.
In p. 286. 2d tense, gothyen, I knew, R 2544, 2559.
gothye, he knew, Pas. 101, 2.
fgotham, Pas. 245. 3.
4th tense, gotkfes, thou knewest. O 151.
5th tense, goflrfy, thou shalt know, D 1042.
Participle, gofkoethys, known, 1520.
In p. 279, apparently in the 4th tense of the verb sub-
stantive, beyn, D 115.
byyn, O 2035. qu. plural.
byugh, O 2349.
byns, 1503.
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