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We
have made a number of changes to the original text.
(1) In certain cases explanations are added .Our additions are in green type
between braces.
.....(a) In the case of cited sources, the full reference is added. Thus after
“Gr.O.50” we add
{= Goronwy Owen (Anglesey), 1723-69; reference to Gwaith
y Parch. Goronwy Owen..., Llanrwst 1860.}
.....(b) Translations of Welsh words not translated in the original text are
added
aur {= gold}
(2) Also, abbreviated forms are expanded (fem. > feminine) for clarity
(3) Certain symbols (usually modified letter shapes or letters with diacritics)
which could not be reproduced in ASCII are in most cases given the usual letter
shape or the letter with the ommison of the diacritic. (e.g. consonantal i and w are indicated by
an inverted breve below the letter, which we don’t reproduce here)
In other cases we use alternative devices to show certain peculiarites
(i) wy (indicated in the text with a
ligature to show it is made up of two vowels) is explained by adding { [ui] } after the word
(ii) The author uses an upside-down “h” to represent the vowel “y” when it is
pronounced as [i] or [ii] rather than as an obscure vowel. We have used “ÿ”
(4) Instead of the paragraph mark §14, we have Section ::14
(5) Bibilcal chapter and verse numbers e.g. v. 14
are written
(6) There are other very minor changes for clarity
{Note: In this online
edition we have added the English translations of the biblical translations}
{Note:
In the original book the page number is given. Here we give the Paragraph
Number preceded by two colons. Use the ‘Find’ box and type in for example
Section ::14 to go to paragraph 14}
·····
Adrannau wedi eu hychwanegu hyd yn hyn mewn llythrennau
coch:
Sections so far added are in red type:
::A0001 ::A0002 ::A0003 ::A0004 ::A0005 ::A0006 ::A0007 ::A0008 ::A0009 ::A0010
::01 ::02 ::03
::04 ::05 ::06 ::07 ::08 ::09 ::10 ::11 ::12 ::13 ::14 ::15 ::16 ::17 ::18 ::19
::20 ::21 ::22 ::23 ::24 ::25 ::26 ::27 ::28 ::29 ::30 ::31 ::32 ::33 ::34 ::35
::36 ::37 ::38 ::39 ::40 ::41 ::42 ::43 ::44 ::45 ::46 ::47 ::48 ::49
::50 ::51 ::52 ::53 ::54 ::55 ::56 ::57 ::58 ::59 ::60 ::61 ::62 ::63 ::64 ::65
::66 ::67 ::68 ::69 ::70 ::71 ::72 ::73 ::74 ::75 ::76
::77 ::78 ::79 ::80 ::81::82
::83 ::84 ::85 ::86 ::87 ::88 ::89 ::90 ::91 ::92 ::93 ::94 ::95 ::96 ::97 ::98
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::112 ::113 ::114 ::115 ::116 ::117 ::118
::119 ::120 ::121 ::122 ::123 ::124 ::125
::126 ::127 ::128 ::129 ::130 ::131 ::132 ::133
::134 ::135 ::136 ::137 ::138 ::139 ::140 ::141 ::142 ::143 ::144 ::145
::146 ::147 ::148 ::149 ::150 ::151 ::152
::153 ::154 ::155 ::156 ::157 ::158 ::159 ::160 ::161
::162 ::163 ::164 ::165 ::166 ::167
::168 ::169 ::170 ::171 ::172 ::173 ::174 ::175 ::176 ::177 ::178 ::179 ::180 ::181 ::182 ::183 ::184 ::185 ::186 ::187 ::188 ::189 ::190 ::191 ::192 ::193 ::194 ::195
::196 ::197 ::198 ::199 ::200 ::201 ::202 ::203 ::204 ::205 ::206 ::207 ::208
::209 ::210 ::211 ::212 ::213 ::214 ::215 ::216 ::217 ::218 ::219 ::220 ::221
::222 ::223 ::224 ::225 ::226 ::227 ::228 ::229 ::230 ::231 ::232 ::233 ::234 ::235 ::236 ::237 ::238 ::239 ::240 ::241 ::242
::243 ::244 ::245 ::246 ::247 ::248 ::249 ::250
::251 ::252 ::253 ::254 ::255 ::256 ::257 ::258 ::259 ::260 ::261 ::262 ::263
::264 ::265 ::266 ::267 ::268 ::269 ::270 ::271 ::272 ::273 ::274 ::275
::276 ::277 ::278 ::279 ::280 ::281 ::282
::283 ::284 ::285 ::286 ::287 ::288 ::289 ::290 ::291 ::292 ::293 ::294 ::295
::296 ::297 ::298 ::299 ::300 ::301 ::302
::303 ::304 ::305 ::306 ::307 ::308 ::309
::310 ::311 ::312 ::313 ::314 ::315 ::316 ::317 ::318 ::319 ::320 ::321 ::322
::323 ::324 ::325 ::326 ::327 ::328 ::329 ::330 ::331 ::332 ::333 ::334 ::335
::336 ::337 ::338 ::339 ::340 ::341 ::342
::343 ::344 ::345 ::346 ::347 ::348 ::349
::350 ::351 ::352 ::353 ::354 ::355 ::356
::357 ::358 ::359 ::360 ::361 ::362 ::363 ::364 ::365 ::366 ::367 ::368 ::369
::370 ::371 ::372 ::373 ::374 ::375 ::376 ::377 ::378 ::379 ::380 ::381 ::382 ::383
::384 ::385 ::386 ::387 ::388 ::389 ::390 ::391 ::392 ::393 ::394
::395 ::396 ::397 ::398 ::399 ::400 ::401
::402 ::403 ::404 ::405 ::406 ::407 ::408 ::409 ::410 ::411
::412 ::413 ::414 ::415 ::416 ::417 ::418
..
AN ELEMENTARY WELSH GRAMMAR
BY
Sir J. MORRIS-JONES, M.A., LL.D.
Professor of Welsh at the University College of North Wales, Bangor.
Late Research Fellow of Jesus College, Oxford
PART I
PHONOLOGY AND ACCIDENCE
OXFORD
AT THE CLARENDON PRESS
1921
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
London / Edinburgh / Glasgow / Copenhagen / New York / Toronto / Melbourne /
Cape Town / Bombay / Calcutta / Madras / Shanghai
HUMPHREY MILFORD
Publisher to the University
PREFACE
This grammar deals with Modern Literary Welsh only. It follows the lines of my Welsh
Grammar Historical and Comparative, 1913, so far as that treats of the
modern language; but the matter has been largely re-written, and is in some
respects more detailed. The history of the Welsh language is divided into
periods thus:
1. Early Welsh,. from the 6th to the 8th
century;
2. Old Welsh, from the 8th to the 11th ;
3. Medieval Welsh, from the 12th to the 14th ;
4. Early Modern Welsh, from the 14th to the 16th ;
5. Late Modern Welsh, from the 16th to the present time.
The Modern period begins in the 14th century with the cywyddau of Dafydd
ap Gwilym, which constituted a new departure in Welsh poetry. Instead of the
laboured and artificially archaic style which continued to be affected by the
bards, Dafydd ap Gwilym adopted a comparatively simple and natural diction; and
instead of the somewhat awkward awdl metres of the earlier period he
used the cywydd metre almost exclusively. The cywydd sprang into
immediate popularity, and thrust the older metres into the background. Though awdlau
continued to be written, the bulk of the poetry of the period from Dafydd ap
Gwilym to Edmwnd Prys (say 1350-1600) was composed in the cywydd metre.
The language of this body of poetry is called Early Modern Welsh. Its forms
were fixed by the cynghanedd, and especially by the rhymes of the cywydd.
In every cywydd couplet an accented rhymes with an unaccented syllable;
and the sounds of unaccented finals, by being continually compared with the
more stable sounds of accented monosyllables, were preserved in their fullness
and purity. Thus Early Modern Welsh is a highly cultivated literary language,
remarkably uniform and self-consistent owing to strict adherence to a sound
tradition.
Late Modern Welsh begins with Dr. Morgan’s translation of the Bible published
in 1588. Wm. Salesbury had translated the New Testament into a language of his
own invention in which the words were written according to his idea of their
etymology; it was a travesty of Welsh, which M. Kyffin stated in 1595 to be
“intolerable to a good Welshman’s ear”. Dr. Morgan adopted the standard
literary form which was still written in great purity by the bards. But he,
too, was influenced by etymological theories; he adopted some of Salesbury’s
inventions, and altered many traditional forms to make them appear more
“regular”. The result. generally was to make the new literary language more
artificial and further removed from the spoken language. Dr. Davies, who is
responsible for the language of the 1620 revision, had studied the works of the
bards, as his grammar (1621) shows; he corrected many of the debased forms used
by Morgan, but allowed his neologisms to stand. In the early 19th century
Pughe’s etymological theories tended to make the written language still more
artificial and unreal, but their effects have now passed away. But in cynghanedd
the literary tradition persisted, though not unmixed; and many traditional
forms are quoted in the following pages from the bards of the 18th and early
19th centuries. The written language has been corrupted not only under the
influence of false etymological theories, but in the opposite direction by the
substitution of dialectal for literary forms. In these cases (with some
exceptions, e.g. Section ::65) the tradition has reasserted itself, and
a fair approximation to the standard has been maintained.
The value of the tradition is that it represents the language in a form which
was everywhere recognized as pure, and of which the various dialects represent
different corruptions. In this little book ‘have attempted to give a fairly
complete, but concise, and ‘hope clear, account of the tradition in the modern
period. ‘have quoted medieval forms only when they throw light on later usage.
The examples generally are from the Early Modern bards and Late Modern writers.
To save space ‘have usually left biblical quotations untranslated, as the
meanings of the words can easily be discovered by reference to the English
Bible.
JOHN MORRIS-JONES.
{Note: In this online edition we have added the
English translations of the biblical translations}
CONTENTS
PHONOLOGY
(1) THE ALPHABET..........
Section ::1
(2) THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS
The Vowels.......... Section ::2
The Consonants.......... Section ::14
(3) SOUNDS IN COMBINATION
Syllabic Division......... Section ::30
Diphthongs: Definition......... Section ::32
Diphthongs: Falling Diphthongs......... Section
::33
Diphthongs: Rising Diphthongs......... Section
::38
Diphthongs: Ambiguous Groups......... Section
::45
Diphthongs: Reduction and Confusion of Diphthongs......... Section ::63
Accentuation: Definitions......... Section ::68
Accentuation: Position of the Accent......... Section
::73
Accentuation: Compounds......... Section ::78
Accentuation: Loss of Unaccented Syllables......... Section
::84
Accentuation, Aspiration and Gemination......... Section
::88
Quantity......... Section ::93
(4) VOWEL CHANGES
Definitions ......... Section ::113
Vowel Mutation......... Section ::114
Vowel Affection: Ultimate a-Affection......... Section ::120
Vowel Affection: Ultimate i-Affection......... Section ::121
Vowel Affection: Penultimate Affection......... Section
::122
(5) CONSONANT CHANGES
Initial Mutation......... Section ::123
Medial and Final Mutation......... Section ::124
ACCIDENCE:
(6) THE ARTICLE......... Section ::128
(7) NOUNS......... Section ::129
Number......... Section ::130
Number: The
Number: The Plural Endings......... Section ::141
Number: Plural formed from Derivatives......... Section
::159
Number: Double Plurals......... Section ::160
Number: Plural Doublets......... Section ::162
Number: Singular Doublets......... Section ::164
Number: Anomalous Plurals......... Section ::167
Number: Nouns with no Plural......... Section
::168
Number: Nouns with no Singular......... Section
::169
Gender......... Section ::170
(8) ADJECTIVES......... Section ::187
Number......... Section ::188
Plural Adjectives used as Nouns......... Section
::195
Gender......... Section ::199
Comparison......... Section ::206
(9) NUMERALS......... Section ::218
(10) COMPOUND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES......... Section
::224
(11) PRONOUNS
Personal Pronouns......... Section ::231
Possessive Adjectives......... Section ::238
The Relative Pronoun......... Section ::239
Interrogative Pronouns and Adjectives......... Section
::243
Demonstrative Pronouns and Adjectives......... Section
::247
Pronominalia......... Section ::250
(12) VERBS......... Section ::267
The Regular Verb......... Section ::277
The Regular Verb: Notes on the Conjugation......... Section
::278
The Regular Verb: Contracted Forms......... Section
::291
Irregular Verbs: The Verb ‘To Be’......... Section
::302
Irregular Verbs: Compounds of the Verb ‘To Be’......... Section ::314
Irregular Verbs: Af, Gwnaf, and Deuaf......... Section ::320
Irregular Verbs: Verbs with old Perfects......... Section
::325
Irregular Verbs: Verbs with t-Aorists......... Section ::330
Defective Verbs......... Section ::332
Verbal Nouns......... Section ::339
Verbal Adjectives......... Section ::349
Compound Verbs......... Section ::351
(13) PREPOSITIONS
Conjugated Prepositions......... Section ::353
Uninflected Prepositions......... Section ::375
Nominal Prepositions......... Section ::376
Compound Prepositions......... Section ::382
(14) ADVERBS
Negative Particles......... Section ::385
Interrogative Particles......... Section ::386
Affirmative Particles......... Section ::390
Adverbs of Time, Place, Manner, and Measure......... Section
::393
(15) CONJUNCTIONS......... Section ::401
(16) INTERJECTIONS........
Section ::415
PHONOLOGY
(1) THE ALPHABET
::1 The Modern Welsh alphabet consists of twenty simple letters and
seven digraphs. The following table shows the
signs in their traditional order, with the name of each in Welsh spelling:
a â
b bî
c ĕc
ch ĕch
d dî
dd ĕdd
e ê
f ĕf
ff ĕff
g ĕg
ng ĕng
h âets
i î
l ĕl
ll ĕll
m ĕm
n ĕn
o ô
p pî
ph ỳff or ffî
r ĕr
s ĕs
t tî
th ĕth
u û
w ŵ
y ŷ
(2) THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS
(a) THE VOWELS.
::2. The letters a e i have their continental values; they
are not sounded ay ee ai as in English, but ah ek ee.
::3. a, as in tad, has nearly the sound of the English a
in father. When short, as in brat, it has the same sound, and not the
more forward sound of the English short a in fat, mat
::4. i, as in gwin,
is sounded like the Northern English i in machine. It is closer
than in the Southern English pronunciation. When short, as in dim, it
has the same sound, and not the wider i in English dim
::5. w,
as in brwd, has the sound of the Northern English oo in food.
It is closer than in the Southern English, pronunciation. It has the same sound
when short, as in trwm .
::6. e, when long or medium, as in gwên,
gwenau, has the sound of the middle e of English let. When
short, as in pen pennau, it is slightly more open, tending towards the
English e in there.
::7. o, when long or medium, as in tôn tonau, has a
sound midway between the close o of English note and the open o
of English not. When short, as in ton tonnau, it is more open,
tending towards the o of not.
::8. u was formerly sounded like French u,
but now its sound is the same as the clear sound of y { [i], [ii] }; thus hun ‘self’ and hy^n ‘older’, formerly distinct, have now the same sound.
::9. y has two sounds, the clear and the
obscure. The clear sound, as in bys { [biis] }‘finger’, is somewhat similar to the first
y in English mystery, but is a thicker sound. To produce it the mouth-passage is
narrowed by raising the middle part of the tongue, its point touching the lower
teeth inside. The obscure sound of y,
as in byrrach, is the sound of the
English y in myrtle. In this grammar the character y is used, as in ordinary writing and printing, to denote both
sounds; but where it is necessary to distinguish them the clear sound is
denoted by ÿ, and the obscure by ỳ. From what has been said above
it is seen that u and ÿ denote the same sound. In
::10. The difference in Modern Welsh
between uand y is that u has the same sound in all
positions, thus the u of hun ‘self ‘remains unchanged in quality
in hunan ‘self ‘; but the sound of y
varies according to position, thus the clear sound in hy^n ‘older’ becomes the obscure in hynaf ‘oldest’, Section ::117.
The spelling in general use in the recent period preserves the old distinction
between u and ÿ correctly in monosyllables, except in crud ‘cradle’, which is wrongly spelt crÿd. In the final unaccented syllable u is wrongly written for y
in melÿs {=
sweet}, although it becomes melysu
{= to sweeten}; and Cymry ‘
credadun {=
believer},
anoddun {=
deep}
arofun {=
intend}
munud {=
minute}.
u has come to be treated as ÿ in ysgrythyr
{= scripture} {plural:}
(ysgrythyrau), etc., Section :: 119.
::11. The following diagram shows the relative positions at which, and
heights to which, the tongue is raised in pronouncing the Welsh vowels. Vowels
pronounced with rounded lips are enclosed in brackets.
{Diagram to be added}
::12. The descriptions given above show that there is a close
parallelism between the front and back vowels: the high front i and high back w are both sounded close; the mid front e and mid back o are both
slightly more open when short than when long or medium.
::13. i and w also represent
consonant sounds; see Section ::29.
THE CONSONANTS
::14. p and b are sounded as
in English.
::15.
t and d are sounded as in English; but the Welsh dentals are
normallv somewhat more forward than the English.
::16. c and g
are sounded respectively like English k
and hard g; they are not pronounced
as v and j in Welsh. But each has really two sounds; the front sound, heard
before i and e, as in ci {= dog}, geneth
{= girl}; and the back sound heard before
other vowels, as in cath {= cat}, gof
{= smith}. The difference is not practically
important, and most speakers are unaware of it.
::17. ff and ph have the same
sound, that of the English f. The
character ph is used as a conscious
mutation of p, as in chwe phunt or chwephunt {= six pounds}; ff is used where the sound is immutable,
as in cyff {=
tree stump}, corff {= body}, ffon
{= stick}.
::18. th has the sound of the
English k in thick, breath.
::19. ch is sounded like the Scotch ch in loch, or German ch in nach.
::20. f has the sound of English v and dd has the sound of the
English th in this, breathe but these sounds are very soft in Welsh, and tend to
drop finally, as tre for tref {= home,
farmstead, town}, sy for sydd {= which
is}. For dd the symbol δ
is often used in writing. and may be adopted for phonetic transcription.
::21. m and n are sounded as in
English.
::22. ng has the sound of the English ng in longing. For phonetic transcription the symbol v may be used; thus llong,
llongau {ship, ships} are pronounced llong, llongngau. But in a few words ng stands for n + g, sounded ngg as in
the English finger; this occurs where
the g is a mutation of c, as in
::23. Welsh has also the voiceless nasals mh,
nh, ngh. The nasals can only be made voiceless by a strong emission of breath,
which is heard as an aspirate after the nasal; the sounds are therefore not
strictly simple, and so their symbols have not been included in the alphabet.
::24. l has the sound of English l.
::25. ll is a voiceless unilateral. It is
produced by putting the tongue in the l
position, raising it so as to close the passage on one side, and blowing
between it and the upper teeth on the other. About three out,of every four
Welsh speakers pronounce it on the right side.
::26. r is trilled, like the strong Scotch
r, or the Italian r. Initially when not mutated, and often
medially, it is made voiceless by a strong emission of breath, which is heard
as an aspirate after it, as in rhaw {= spade}; the symbol of this sound, rh is not included in the alphabet for
the reason given above for the omission of the voiceless nasals.
::27. s has the sound of the English ss in toss. It is never sounded z;
Welsh rhosyn ‘rose’ is pronounced rhossÿn.
::28. h has the sound of English aspirate h. When initial, the mouth is shaped for
the following vowel before the emission of the breath which forms the h.
::29. i and w are often consonants,
sounded like English y and w respectively. When it is necessary to
point out that they are consonantal they are written i {in fact, i with an inverted breve below which we cannot reproduce here},
and w {in
fact, i with an inverted breve below}
in this grammar; iach {= [yaakh] healthy}, caniad {= [KAN yad] poem, cockcrow},
y wennol {=
[WE nol] the swallow}, y wlad {= [wlaad] the country}, galwad {= [GAL wad] call}
SOUNDS IN COMBINATION SYLLABIC DIVISION.
::30. A single consonant between vowels belong
normally to the second syllable; thus ca|rut
‘to love’, caredig ‘kind’;
where there are two or more consonants the first belongs to the first syllable,
as
car|dod ‘charity’,
car|iad ‘love’,
ar|wain ‘to lead’,
car|tref ‘home’.
A double consonant belongs to both; thus in can|nu ‘to whiten’ the first syllable ends after the stoppage of the mouth
passage for the formation of the n,
and the second begins before or with the opening of the passage which completes
the consonant. Thus a double consonant implies not two distinct consonants, but
a consonant in which the opening and closing of the passage are slightly
separated so that both are heard.
::31. In some cases two adjacent syllables have
no intervening consonant; as
dî|olch {
[DII-olkh] }, ‘thanks’,
dê|all {=
[DEE-alh] } ‘understanding’
bwy|tâ|o {=
[bui-TAA-o] } ‘may eat’.
DIPHTHONGS.
Definition.
::32. A diphthong consists of the combination in
the same syllable of a sonantal with a consonantal vowel. When the sonantal
element comes first the combination is a falling diphthong. When the
consonantal element comes first it is a rising diphthong. “Diphthong” without
modification will be understood to mean falling diphthong.
Falling Diphthongs.
::33. The Modern Welsh falling diphthongs may be classified as
follows:
(1)
Diphthongs ending in i, ÿ, or e:
ai ei oi
wy, ey
ae, oe
Examples:
bai {=
blame, fault},
deil {= he
/ she / it holds},
troi {= to
turn};
mwÿn {=
gentle},
teyrn {=
ruler, king};
cae {=
field},
coed {=
wood}
(2)
Diphthongs ending in u:
au eu on
Examples:
dau {= two},
deunaw {=
eighteen, ‘two nines’},
ymarhóus {=
slow, tardy}
(3)
Diphthongs ending in w:
aw ew iw uw ÿw yw ow
Examples:
aw {= nine},
lliw {=
colour},
duw {= god},
bÿw {= to live; alive},
bywÿd {=
life},
dowch {=
come! (imperative)}.
::34. The diphthongs of the first class originally ended in i, of which ÿ e are later
modifications. In
cae {=
field} and coed {= wood} are câÿ,
côÿd .
::35. In the diphthongs ei, ey, eu the e
has not its normal sound, but an obscure sound like y. The o
in the diphthong ow is also obscure, and ow has the same sound as
yw.
::36. Since u and ÿ now represent one sound, eu has
the same value as eÿ, and uw as ÿw; and in North Wales
there is only a partial difference of quantity between ae, oe and au,
on; see paragraphs 102, 103.
::37. Some falling diphthongs are the result of the contraction at a
comparatively late period of two syllables without an intervening consonant,
paragraph 31. The diphthongs oi, ou and ow are always late
contractions; thus rhoi is for rhó|i for an earlier rhoddi,
ymarhóus is for ymarhó|us, and rhowch is for rhó|wch. The
diphthong ey is usually a late contraction; thus teyrn is for an older
té|ÿrn. A late contraction may have the same form as one of the old diphthongs;
thus rhoes ‘he gave’ for rhó|es, and Cym|ráeg for Cym|rá|eg.
In some cases contraction results in a simple vowel, as in gwnaf [aa] ‘I
do’ for gwná|af, or rhôf ‘I give’ [oo] for rhó|af; the
vowel is long except in the penult.
Rising Diphthongs.
::38. The consonantal first element of a rising
diphthong must be either i or w. The following are the
combinations which occur:
(1) ia ie io iw iy
Examples:
initial,
iach, {= health}
iechyd, {= healthy }
iâr, {= hen }
iwrch, iyrchod; {= stag, stags}
medial,
caniad, {= song }
rhodied, {= may he walk}
dynion, {= men}
gweithiwir, {= worker}
myrddiynau. {= innumerable quantities}
(2) wa we wi wo wu wÿ wy
These occur initially only when g- has been mutated away; thus,
cod wag, {= empty bag}
y wennol, {= the swallow}
dy wisg, {= your dress}
y wobr, {= the prize}
dy wull ‘thy flowers’ (Dafÿdd ap Gwilym 525),
yn wyn, {= (is) white}
yn wynnach; {= (is) whiter}
medially,
ceidwad, {= keeper}
gorwedd, {= to lie}
cedwir, {= it is kept}
marwor, {= embers}
galwaf ‘thou calledst’,
penwyn, {= grey-haired}
penwynni. {= to go grey}
RHANNAU HEB EU HYCHWANEGU ETO:
::39 ::40 ::41 ::42 ::43 ::44
::45. As i and w may be either vowels or
consonants the
combinations iw wy may be either falling
or rising diphthongs. In ordinary writing these different values are not
distinguished; in this grammar we distinguish them, where necessary, thus: the
falling diphthongs are written iw {iu} wy {ui}; the rising diphthongs are indicated by marking
the i and w as consonants, thus <iw>
{yu} <wy>
{wi / wø}. The latter has itself two values,
which may be distinguished thus: wÿ {wi}, wỳ
{wø}.
::46. <iw> in
the ultima followed by a consonant is iw {yu},
as
iwrch {
[yurkh] } {= roe deer}
rhodiwch {
[hródyukh] } {= you stroll}
cofiwn {
[kóvyun] } {= we remember, let us remember}
gweithiwr, {
[gwéithyur] } {= worker}
myrddiwn {
[mǿrdhyun] } {= myriad}
The only exceptions are iwch {iukh}‘to you’ and niwl {niul} ‘fog’.
RHANNAU HEB EU HYCHWANEGU ETO:
::47 ::48 ::49 ::50 ::51 ::52 ::53 ::54 ::55 ::56 ::57 ::58 ::59 ::60 ::61 ::62
::63 ::64 ::65 ::66 ::67 ::68 ::69 ::70 ::71 ::72 ::73 ::74 ::75
::76. No Welsh word, or word fully
naturalized in Welsh is accented on the ante-penult. Such forms as Sáesoneg, Sáesones are misspellings of Saesneg {=
Englishwoman}, Saesneg {= English language}; the o was lost before the period of penultimate accentuation, and it is
as incorrect to write Sáesoneg for Saesneg as it would be to write pateria for patria in Latin. The following words are accented regularly, though
sometimes pronounced with the accent wrongly placed on the ante-penult:
cathólig {=
Catholic}
omega {=
omega}
penígamp ‘masterly’,
períglor ‘parson’,
lladmédrydd ‘interpreter’,
ysgelerder ‘atrocity’,
oléwydd ‘olives’.
::77. A few words recently borrowed from English are accented on the
ante-penult, as
mélodi {=
melody}
philósophi {=
philosophy};
but derivative forms of even these are accented regularly, as
melódaidd {=
melodic}
philosóphydd {=
philosophic}
::78. Compound words
are accented regularly; thus
gwín-llan ‘vineyard’;
gwág-law or lláw-wag ‘empty-handed’;
canhwyll-bren {ka
NHUILH bren}‘candle-stick’;
án-noeth ‘unwise’;
cýf-nos ‘evening’.
A compound thus accented is called a strict compound.
::79. But the two
elements of a compound may be separately accented: thus
gáu bróffwyd ‘false prophet’;
cám fárn ‘false judgement’;
cýn {kin}
fáer ‘ex-mayor’.
A compound thus accented is called a loose compound.
The elements of a loose compound are often hyphened, thus cyn-faer; but as any positive adjective put before a noun forms
with it a loose compound, the majority of such compounds are written as
separate words.
::80. Compounds formed with the prefixes
an- {negative}
di- {privative}
cyd- {‘together’}
go- {‘fairly,
quite’}
gwrth- {‘contra’}
rhy- {‘excessively’}
tra- {‘extremeley’}
may be either strict or loose; thus
án háwdd or ánawdd ‘difficult’;
dí fái {
[DII VAI] } or dífai { [DI vai] } ‘faultless’;
cýd wéled {
[KIID WE led] } ‘to concur’;
cydwybod {
[kød UI bod] } ‘conscience’;
trá dóeth {
[TRAA DOITH] } or trádoeth { [TRA doith] } ‘very wise’.
::81. An expression consisting of two or more words in syntactical
relation is sometimes accented as one word. Such a combination is called an
improper compound.
RHANNAU HEB EU HYCHWANEGU ETO:
::82 ::83 ::84 ::85 ::86 ::87 ::88 ::89 ::90 ::91 ::92 ::93 ::94 ::95 ::96 ::97 ::98 ::99 ::100 ::101 ::102 ::103 ::104 ::105 ::106 ::107 ::108 ::109 ::110 ::111 ::112 ::113
::114. Certain sounds occurring in the ultima and in
monosyllables are regularly modified in other positions. The following is a
table of these mutations, numbered for
reference.
|
Number |
In final, and monosyllables. |
In other syllables. |
Examples |
|
1 |
ai |
ei |
taith {=
journey} |
|
2 |
au |
eu |
haul {= sun}, |
|
3 |
aw |
o |
tlawd {=
poor} |
|
4 |
w |
y |
trwm {= heavy} |
|
5 |
ÿ |
y |
bÿr {=
short} |
|
6 |
uw |
u |
buwch {= cow} |
As a general rule the respective forms occur only in the positions indicated.
The term "mutation" denotes the interchange, that is the change both
ways; e.g.
ai to ei in gair, geiriau {= word, words};
ei to ai in deilen, dail {= leaf, leaves}.
RHANNAU HEB EU HYCHWANEGU ETO:
::115 ::116 ::117 ::118
::119. With the exceptions mentioned in the
above section, the sound which is now common to ÿ and u, if it
occurs in the penult, is to be written u. Thus munud has two u’s
because in the standard pronunciation the sound is u in both syllables
in the penult:
munud, {= minute} munudau.
So
papur {=
paper}, papurau.
In a few cases u in the ultima has come to be mistaken for ÿ { [i] }and mutated to y { [ø] } in the penult; as in
ysgrythyrau plural of ysgrythur {=
scripture}, treated as ysgrythyr on the analogy of llythyr.
So
testynau, plural of testun, treated as testyn;
corynau plural of corun {= crown of the
head}, treated as coryn.
RHANNAU HEB EU HYCHWANEGU ETO:
::120 ::121 ::122 ::123
MEDIAL AND FINAL MUTATION.
::124. All
the above mutations occur medially in the formation of compounds; thus the
initial of the second element of an ordinary noun compound undergoes the soft
mutation, as in
haf-ddydd {=
summer’s day} from haf + dydd {haf = summer, dydd = dya};
the negative prefix an- causes the
nasal mutation, as in
án-noeth {annoeth = unwise} from an + doeth.{an = negative
prefix, doeth = wise}; the
intensive prefix a- causes the
spirant, as in athrist {= sad, pensive, sorrowful} from a + trist
{a =
intensifying prefix, trist = sad}.
::125. The nasal ending of the prefixes an-, cym-, and of the preposition yn, is assimilated in position to an explosive which it mutates;
thus
an + parod {an negative prefix, parod
= ready}gives àm-mhárod,
written amharod {= unready, unprepared} because mm is written Section ::107;
an + caredig {an negative prefix, caredig
= kind} gives àng-ngharedig,
written angharedig {= unkind};
yn + Bangor gives ym Mangor {= in Bangor},
yn + Caer gives yng Nghaer {in Chester}Section ::Section ::126,127
::126. The nasal mutation of the tenues
occurs medially, in inflexion; but as it comes after the accent the h of the mutation is lost; thus
the plural of tant {= harp string} is tannau for an older tannheu;
the plural of crafanc {claw} is crafangau
for an old crafangngheu;
the ordinal pump {= five} is pumed
for pummhed; see Section ::88.
It occurs finally in pump and cant {=
hundred} which become pum and can before a noun (for pummh, cannh); also in deg
which becomes deng before a nasal, as
deng mlynedd {=
ten years}
pm is mutated to mh in patronymics, as Amhadog
for Ap Madog; and tn to nh in prynháwn for an old pryt nawn.
::127.
Medially in inflexion another mutation, which may be called the hard.mtitation,
occurs. When certain suffixes are added, b,
d, g become double p, t, c
respectively, and more rarely f, dd
become ff, th; thus
teg ‘fair’, tecaf (pronunced as teccaf)
‘fairest’;
bwyd ‘food’, bwyta ‘to eat’;
cof ‘memory’, coffa ‘to remember’.
This is generally caused by h in the
suffix. It occurs in composition also; as in drycin (pronounced as dryccin)
{= storm, bad weather} from drwg {= bad}
+ hin {=
weather};
ateb {=
answer}; from ad + heb, cf. go-heb-u {gohebu = correspond}.
In composition
b + b becomes pp,
d + d becomes tt,
g + g becomes cc;
as in Catéyrn for Catteyrn from Cad-deyrn {= battle-king, teyrn = king};
wynepryd {=
countenance} from wyneb-bryd {= face-appearance, pryd
= appearance};
The above changes take place finally and initially when -b h- or -b b-, etc.,
come together in different words. The change is not in this case represented in
writing; but it is recognized in cynghanedd, in which
-b h- corresponds to p
-b b- to p,
-d h- to t, etc.
ACCIDENCE
(6) THE ARTICLE
::128. The definite article is yr, ‘r or y.
Welsh has no indefinite article.
The full form of the article is yr; after a vowel this was reduced very
early to ’r, Section ::87; thus o yr ty^ ‘from the house’
became o’r ty^. Subsequently the r was lost before a consonant,
except where the y was already lost; thus yr ty^ became y ty^;
but o’r ty^ remained.
For the use of the forms, initial mutation of noun, etc., see Syntax.
NOUNS
::129. The noun in Welsh has two numbers, singular and
plural; and two genders, masculine and feminine. Traces of the dual number are
seen in dwyfron ‘breasts’, dwylo ‘hands’, the latter having
become the ordinary plural of llaw. Traces of the old neuter are seen in
nouns of vacillating gender, Section ::186; and in the non-mutation of
certain nouns after dau, as dau cant ‘two hundred’.
NUMBER.
::130. The plural of a noun is formed
from the singular by vowel change, or the addition of a termination, or both.
But Welsh has singular terminations also; and when the singular has been formed
by adding one of these to the stem, the plural is usually formed from the bare
stem with or without vowel change or a plural termination. There are thus seven
ways of deducing the plural from the singular:
II. by adding a termination;
III. by adding a termination with vowel change
IV. by dropping a singular termination;
V. by dropping a singular termination with vowel change;
VI. by substituting a plural for a singular termination;
VII. by substituting a plural for a singular termination with vowel change.
The
::131.
1. The vowel change by which the plural of some nouns is formed without a
termination is
ultimate i-affection, Section ::121.
Examples:
1a. a > ai
brân crow, plural = brain
sant saint, plural = saint
dafad sheep, plural = defaid
llygad eye, plural = llygaid
1b. a > ei
bardd bard, plural = beirdd
gafr goat, plural = geifr
arth bear, plural = eirth
sarff serpent, plural = seirff
tarw bull, plural = teirw
carw stag, plural = ceirw
iâr hen, plural = ieir
car car, plural = ceir
1c. a > ÿ
butstach bullock, plural = bustÿch
tafarn tavern, plural = tefÿrn
aradr plough, plural = erÿdr
alarch swan, plural = elÿrch
paladr ray, plural = pelÿdr
::2. ae > ei
draen thorn, plural = drain
maen stone, plural = main
::3. e > ÿ
cyllell knife, plural = cyllÿll
gwden withe, plural = gwdÿn
asgell wing, plural = esgÿll
castell castle, plural = cestÿll
angel angel, plural = engÿl
aberth sacrifice, plural = ebÿrth
bachgen boy, plural = bechgÿn
llawes sleeve, plural = llewÿs
maharen ram, plural = meherÿn
::4. o > ÿ
ffon stick, plural = ffÿn
ffordd way, plural = ffÿrdd
corff body, plural = cÿrff
Cymro Welshman, plural = Cymrÿ
esgob bishop, plural = esgÿb
::6. w > ÿ
asgwrn bone, plural = esgÿrn
arddwrn wrist, plural = erddÿrn
::6. oe > wy {-ui-}
oen lamb, plural = w^yn
croen skin, plural = crwyn
croes cross, plural = crwys
Crwys and esgyb are obsolete, but were used in the 18th century;
croesau and esgobion are the forms now used.
Tafarnau and aberthau are in common use for tefyrn and ebyrth;
and meini has replaced main.
::132.
Before or after g unaccented ÿ is pronounced i, and the
old spelling with survives in a few words, as
cerrig for cerryg, plural of carreg ‘stone’,
cregin for cregyn, plural of cragen ‘shell’
menig for menyg, plural of maneg ‘glove’.
The following formations should be noted:
haearn iron’, plural heyrn;
rhaeadr ‘cataract’, plural rhëydr or rhyeidr;
pennog ‘herring’, plural penwaig (the singular being for an old penwag
{ [PEN-wag] }
gw^r ‘man’, plural gwy^r (the singular being for an old gww^r
{ [gwuur] }.
The old plural of iwrch { [yurkh] } ‘roebuck’
was ÿrch (for iyrch { [yirkh] },
Section ::42),
but this is now generally replaced by iyrchod.
There is no example of the change of aw toeu in a plural noun,
but another affection aw > yw occurs in elyw old plural
of alaw ‘water-lily’.
::133.
Anomalous vowel changes occur in
troed ‘foot’, plural = traed;
ty^ ‘house’, plural = tai.
The compounds of the latter have both -dai and -dyau; as
beudai (beudái) ‘cowhouses’,
gweithdai (gweithdai) ‘workshops’,
elusendai ‘almshouses’
lletýau ‘lodgings’
hundýau ‘dormitories’.
The plural of llo ‘calf’ is lloi, which is contracted for llo-ï.
::134.
II. In many cases the addition to the singular of a plural termination causes
no vowel change; e.g.
tad ‘father’, plural = tadau;
llong ‘ship’, plural = llongau;
môr ‘sea’, plural = moroedd;
grudd ‘cheek’, plural = gruddiau;
afon ‘river’, plural = afonydd;
llestr ‘vessel’, plural = llestri;
brenin ‘king’, plural = brenhinoedd
w^yr ‘grandson’, plural = wyrion {-ui-}
gofal ‘care’, plural = gofalon.
A list of, plural = terminations is given in Section ::141.
::135.
The medial consonant mutation of nt to nn and nc to ng,
Section ::126, occurs in some words when a plural termination is added;
as tant ‘harpstring’, plural = tannau;
meddiant ‘possession’, plural = meddiannau;
crafanc ‘talon’, plural = crafaingau.
In new formations the mutation is neglected; and mp is not mutated:
camp ‘feat’, plural = campau.
::136.
III. The vowel changes which take place in the singular when a plural
termination is added are the following:
(1) Mutation, Section ::114. Examples:
1. aí > ei
gair word, plural = geiriau
caib pickaxe, plural = ceibiau
saig mess, meal, plural = seigiau
taid grandfather, plural = teidiau
iaith language, plural = ieithoedd
gobaith hope, plural = gobeithion
2. au > eu
ffau den, plural = ffeuau
haul sun, plural = heuliau
traul expense, plural = treuliau
gwaun moor, plural = gweunydd
genau mouth, plural = geneuau
3. aw > o
awr hour, plural = oriau
llawr floor, plural = lloriau
blawd flour, plural = blodau
brawd brother, plural = brodyr
brawd judgement, plural = brodiau
traethawd treatise, plural = traethodau
3. w > y
bwrdd table, plural = byrddau
blwch box, plural = blychau
cwch boat, plural = cychod
ffrwd stream, plural = ffrydiau
sibrwd whisper, plural = sibrydion
cwmwl cloud, plural = cymylau
swmbwl stimulus, plural = symbylau
4. ÿ > y
dyn man, plural = dynion
bryn hill, plural = bryniau
mynydd mountain, plural = mynyddoedd
crydd shoemaker, plural = cryddion
telyn harp, plural = telynau
terfyn end, plural = terfynau
offeryn instrument, plural = offerynnau
dyffryn valley, plural = dyffrynnoedd
5. uw > u
buwch cow, plural = buchod
cuwch frown, plural = cuchiau
Note
rhaw ‘spade’, plural = rhofiau
daw ‘son-in-law’, plural = dofion, in which an f lost in
the singular remains in the plural;
praw ‘proof’, plural = profion is similar, but in this the f
is generally restored in the singular in writing
(2) Penultimate affection, Section 122. The endings which cause
affection are -i, -ÿdd, -iaid, -ion,
-iau (rarely).
Examples:
1. a > ei
mab soil, plural = meibion
gwas servant, plural = gweision
cymar mate, plural = cymheiriaid
2. e > ei
niwed harm, plural = niweidiau
gefell twin, plural = gefeilliaid
3. a > ei
gardd garden, plural = gerddi
dâr oak, plural = deri
gwlad country, plural = gwledydd
4. ae > ei
saer craftsman, plural = seiri
maen stone, plural = meini
maer mayor, plural = meiri
5. ae > eÿ
caer fort, plural = ceyrydd
maes field, plural = meysydd
cawr giant, plural =, plural = cewri
(3) Reversion. In some nouns the vowel is affected in the singular, but remains
unaffected in the, plural =. In deducing the, plural = from the singular we
have to substitute the unaffected for the affected vowel. The change from the
affected to the unaffected sound is called reversion. The affection in the
singular is the ultimate i-affection, Section ::121. Examples:
1a. ai > a
gwraig wife, plural = gwragedd
deigr tear, plural = dagrau
celain corpse, plural = celanedd
rhiain maiden, plural = rhianedd
elain fawn, plural = elanedd
adain wing, plural = adanedd
cainc branch, plural = cangen
1b. ei > a
lleidr thief, plural = lladron
neidr snake, plural = nadredd, nadroedd
deigr tear, plural = dagrau
2. ei > a
3. au > aw or af
cenau whelp, plural = cenawon, cynafon
edau thread, plural = edafedd
For adanedd the form adenydd, Section 160 (3), is now
used, and adain is generally misspelt
{= thin whelp, be silent }
{= Blodeu-gerdd Cymry...; editor D. Jones,
Amwythig (
Deigr is sometimes used as a plural, Gr.O.50.
{= Goronwy Owen (
Rhaid bod yr enwog rywiog rïain
O ddeunaw oed i un ar hugain.-
Gm.P. 125.
{= Gwilym Peris = William Williams, 1769-1847;
reference to Awengerdd Peris Llanrwst
[1813].}
‘The renowned gentle maiden must be from eighteen [years] old to twenty-one.’
At dair geneth o dir Gwynedd
O glod rhïanedd glân.-
Gu.P. 145.
{= Gutyn Peris =
‘[I send greetings] to three girls of the
Fair wennaf o rianedd,
Ddwyfach waed, ddiafiach wedd. -
D.W. 251.
{= Dewi Wyn o Eifion = Dafydd Owen (Llanystumdwy),
1784- 1841; reference to Blodau Arfon,
Caerlleon, 1842.}
‘Mary, fairest of maidens, of the blood of Dwyfach, of hale aspect.’
Mae mor falch a’r fwyalch fain
A’i hyder ar ei hadain. -
R.J. 280.
‘She is as proud as the slender blackbird trusting to its wing.’
{= Rhys Jones o’r Blaenau (Merionethshire.) 1713-1801
(editor of Gorchestion Beirdd Cymru..., editor Rhys Jones. Amwythig (
(4) Anomalous vowel changes occur in
chwaer (1 syllable) ‘sister’, plural = chwiorydd (3 syllables);
mnorwyn ‘maid’, plural = morynion (for which morwynion was
used in the Bible, and is usual in late literary Welsh);
qwayw (or gwaew) ‘spear;’ pain’, plural = gwewyr;
pared ‘partition’, plural = parwydydd.
::137. IV. In some cases the loss of the singular
ending -yn or -en causes no vowel change.
Examples:
mochyn ‘pig’, plural = moch;
pluen ‘feather’, plural = plu;
blewyn ‘a hair’, plural = blew;
llygoden ‘mouse’, plural = llygod;
derwen ‘oak-tree’, plural = derw
seren ‘star’, plural = sêr; etc.
::138. V. The vowel changes which take
place when the ending is dropped are the following:
(1) Mutation, Section ::114. Examples:
1.. ei > ai
meipen turnip, plural = maip
deilen leaf, plural = dail
2. eu > au
cneuen nut, plural =, plural = cnau
blodeuyn flower, plural = blodau
3. o > aw
conyn stalk, plural = cawn
4. y > w
gwenynen bee, plural = gwenÿn
(2). Ultimate affection, Section ::121. Examples:
1a. a > ai
chwannen flea, plural = chwain
dalen leaf, plural = dail
gwïalen, plural = gwiail
1b. a > ai or ÿ
tywarchen sod, plural = tyweirch or tywÿrch
2. ae > ai
draenen hawthorn, plural = drain
3. e > ÿ
seren star old, plural = sÿr
4. o > ÿ
collen hazel, plural = cÿll
onnen ash, plural = ÿnn
(3) Reversion. As -yn causes penultimate affection,
when it drops the vowel reverts to its original sound; thus
e > a in
plemtÿn ‘child’, plural = plant;
aderyn ‘bird’, plural = adar
dilledyn ‘garment’, plural = dillad.
(4) Exchange of penultimate for ultimate affection
In gïewyn ‘sinew ‘(contracted to giewyn {
[GYEU in] }, written gewyn) the ew is the penultimate
affection of aw
(Section ::122, No. 7);
the ultimate affection of this is air (Section ::121, No. 7),
hence the, plural = gïau. { [GI ai] }.
Another example is llysewyn ‘herb’, plural = llysau, though for
these the new formations llysieuyn, llysiau are mostly used in the late
period.
::139. VI.
A plural ending is sometimes substituted for the singular ending -yn or -en.
Examples:
difer-yn ‘drop’, plural = difer-ion;
crwydr-yn ‘vagrant’, plural = crwydr-aid;
meddw-yn ‘drunkard’, plural = meddw-on;
cwning-en ‘rabbit’, plural = cwning-od;
planhig-yn ‘plant’, plural = planhig-ion.
::140.
VII. The following vowel changes occur when a, plural = ending replaces a
singular ending as above:
(1) Affection; thus a>e in mïar-en
‘bramble’, plural = mïer-i.
(2) Reversion; thus e > a in
cerp-yn ‘rag’, plural = carp-iau
gelyn ‘enemy’, old, plural = galon, sometimes used in poetry
(ordinary plural = gelynion).
The plural Endings
::141.
The endings used to form the plural of nouns are
-au, -iau;
-ion, -on, -en;
-i, -ydd, -edd, -oedd;
-ed, -od,
-iaid, -aint, old -awt;
-er, -yr, old -awr.
Diminutive -ach (-iach); -os.
::142.
-au or -iau is added to
(1) most names of common objects. Examples:
pen head, plural = pennau
trwyn nose, plural = trwynau
ceg mouth, plural = cegau
arf weapon, plural = arfau
pin pin, plural = pinnau
llyfr book, plural = llyfrau
bwrdd table, plural = byrddau
cadair chair,, plural = cadeiriau
drws door, plural = drysau
dôr door, plural = dorau
tw^r tower, plural = tyrau
twr heap, plural = tyrrau
llong ship, plural = llongau
bad boat, plural = badau
ton wave, plural = tonnau
cleddyf sword, plural = cleddyfau
llafn blade, plural = llafnau
tlws jewel, plural = tlysau
safn mouth, plural = safnau
cae field, plural = caeau
clawdd hedge, plural = cwtau
pwll pool, plural = pyllau
llan church, plural = llannau
teml temple, plural = temlau
(2) Some nouns denoting persons; as
tad ‘father’, plural = tadau;
mam ‘mother’, plural = mamau;
duw ‘a god’, plural = duwiau;
mach ‘a surety’, plural = meichiau;
feminine nouns in -es, as
brenhines ‘queen’, plural = breninesau.
(3) A few names of animals; as
ceffyl ‘horse’, plural = ceffylau;
hebog ‘hawk’, plural = hebogau;
blaid ‘wolf’, plural = bleiddiau and bleiddiaid, Section
::156 (4).
(4) Many abstract nouns; as
drwg ‘evil’, plural = drygau;
barn ‘judgement’, plural = barnau;
brawd ‘judgement’, plural = brodiau;
poen ‘pain’, plural = poenau;
gofid ‘sorrow’, plural = gofidiau;
meddwl ‘thought’, plural = meddyliau;
including abstract derivatives in -ad or -iad, -aeth, -as,
-der, -did, -dod, -edd, -yd, as
bwriadau ‘intentions’,
gweledigaethau ‘visions’,
prïodasau ‘weddings’,
mwynderau ‘delights’,
gwendidau ‘weaknesses’,
pererindodau ‘pilgrimages’,
troseddau ‘transgressions’,
clefydau ‘fevers’.
(5) Most names of times, seasons, etc.; as
dydd ‘day’, plural = dyddiau (old diau in trídiau),
awr ‘hour’, plural = oriau;
munud ‘minute’, plural = munudau;
bore ‘morning’, plural = boréau or borÿau (generally
corrupted to boreuau);
nos ‘night’, plural = nosau;
wythnos ‘week’, plural = wythnosau;
haf ‘summer’, plural = hafau;
gaeaf ‘winter’, plural = gaeafau;
tymor ‘season’, plural = tymhorau.
Exceptions:
mis, plural = misoedd;
blwyddyn, plural = blynyddoedd;
oes, amser Section ::152
(6) A few nouns in -yn or -eu, as
offerynnau ‘instruments’,
defnynnau ‘drops’,
dalennau ‘leaves’.
::143. -iau
occurs after forms having ai in the ultima, as
cadeiriau {= chairs}, bleiddiau {= wolves} above,
sail ‘foundation’, plural = seiliau, etc;
after many forms having i, as gofidiau {=
worries, cares} above,
gliniau ‘knees’,
esgidiau ‘shoes’,
cyffiniau ‘confines’,
ciliau ‘recesses’,
cistiau ‘chests’
(but gwendidau {= weaknesses} above,
tidau ‘chains’,
cribau ‘combs’,
cigau ‘meats’, etc.);
after many forms with u, as
gruddiau ‘cheeks’,
cystuddiau ‘afflictions’,
cluniau ‘thighs’,
Suliau ‘Sundays’,
pladuriau ‘scythes ‘
(but munudau {= minutes} above, ysbardunau
‘spurs’, crudau ‘cradles’, etc.);
after monosyllables with aw, as
cloddiau {= ditches, hedges}, brodiau
{= judgements} above,
lloriau ‘floors’,
bodiau ‘thumbs’, etc.
(and cawgiau {= bowls}, hawliau {= rights}).
It also occurs after some forms which take i {consonantal
‘i’} before other endings, as meddyliau {=
thoughts} above, cf. meddyliaf ‘I think’,
bryniau ‘hills’, cf. bryniog ‘hilly’;
and is used to form new plurals, especially of borrowed words, as
hetiau ‘hats’,
capiau ‘caps’,
bratiau ‘aprons’,
carpiau ‘rags’,
llanciau ‘lads’,
troliau ‘carts ‘(singular trol),
tyniau ‘tins’, etc.
(clo {= lock}, tro {= turn}Section ::144).
144. -ion is
added to
(1) many nouns denoting persons, as
dyn ‘man’, plural dynion;
mab ‘son’, plural meibion;
gwas ‘servant’, plural ‘gweision’;
w^yr ‘grandson’, plural wyrion; { [ui] }
esgob ‘bishop’, plural esgobion
(old plural esgyb, Section ::131, 4).
These include derivatives in -(h)ai, -ydd, -og, -or, -ig, -awdr, as
gwesteion ‘guests’, singular gwestai;
gwehyddion ‘weavers’;
marchogion ‘knights’;
cantorion ‘singers’;
pendefigion ‘nobles’;
and adjectives used as nouns Section ::195.
In a few cases the ending is -on; as
meddygon ‘physicians’,
Iddewon ‘Jews’;
Saeson {= English people},
athrawon {= teachers}, Section ::136 (3);
after a consonant + r, (Section
::43), as
lladron Section ::136 (3),
dysgodron, singular dysgawdr ‘teacher’, usually corrupted to dysgawdwr
with a false plural dysgawdwyr.
(2) Some names of implements:
cy^n ‘chisel’, plural cynion;
ebill ‘auger’, plural ebillion;
trosol ‘crow-bar’;
pawl ‘pole’, plural polion;
ysgol ‘ladder’, plural ysgolion;
ysgol ‘school’, a different word, forms its plural similarly.
(3) Some abstract nouns:
rhybuddion ‘warnings’,
esgusiuon ‘excuses’,
trafferthion ‘troubles’;
with -on:
gofalon ‘cares’,
cysuron ‘comforts’,
arogleuon ‘smells’.
But most of these take -au, Section ::142 (4).
(4) ebol ‘colt’, plural ebolion;
{ [yon] }
cenau, {= cub}Section ::136 (3);
planhig-yn ‘plant’, plural planhig-ion{ [yon] }
.
i after o and a formed
the diphthongs oe and ae early, Section ::34; hence
tro ‘turn’, plural troeon or troeau (written mechanically,
not phonetically, troion, troiau);
so
clo ‘lock’, cloeau (cloiau G. 145, 147); {G. = Gorchestion Beirdd Cymru..., editor Rhys
Jones. Amwythig (
to ‘roof’, toeau.
Similarly
gwasgfa {= pang; pressure}, gwasgfaeon (written gwasgfeuon);
so oedfa {= chapel service}.
::145.
-en survives only in ychen
‘oxen’, singular ych.
The plural is often misspelt ychain by late writers; but always appears
as ychen in Medieval and Early Modern Welsh.
The -en is the same as that in English oxen, and both come
directly from Primitive Aryan *-enes, as shown by the Sanskrit cognate.
Ystig fydd beunydd i ben
Ystryd iach is traed ychen.-
I.G. 638.
‘Strenuous is he always [plodding] to the end of a healthy track under oxen’s
feet.’ - To the ploughman.
Criai wy^r cau ar i wên;
Crïwyd uwch caer Rhydychen.-
S.Ph. c.c. 189.
{= Siôn Phylip (Ardudwy, Merionethshire), 1543-1620.
The Cefn Coch MSS. . . ., editor J. Fisher;
‘Men wept that his smile should be enshrouded [in the grave]; they wept above
the wall of Oxford.’
::146. -i is added to
(1) some names of persons:
saer {= craftsman},
maer {= steward, mayor},
cawr {= giant}, Section ::136 (2);
merthyr ‘martyr’, plural merthyri;
proffwyd {= prophet}, plural proffwydi;
arglwydd {= lord}, plural arglwyddi.
(2) Many names of things having in the ultima e, more rarely a
(affected to e by the -i) o’r wy; as
llestri ‘vessels’)
ffenestri ‘windows’,
llenni ‘veils’
perthi ‘bushes’,
cethri ‘spikes’,
cerddi ‘songs’,
pibelli ‘pipes’
(but
cyllyll {= knives},
esgyll {= wings},
cestyll {= castles},
pedyll {= pans}, Section ::131, 3),
hwylbrenni ‘yards’ {= masts},
canhwyllbrenni ‘candlesticks’ (also with -au),
gwlanneni ‘flannels’,
fflagenni B.CW. 24 ‘flagons',
{B.CW. = Gweledigaethau y Bardd
Cwsc [by Ellis Wynne], 1703; reprint, editor J. Morris Jones,
beddi ditto. 59 (more commonly beddau) ‘graves’;
gerddi ‘gardens¡ (singular. gardd),
deri ‘oaks’ (singular dâr),
peri ‘spears’ (singular pâr);
llwyni D.G. 504, I.MSS. 92, 241
(earlier llwynau D.G. 60) ‘bushes’,
{D.G. = Dafydd ap Gwilym
(
{I. MSS. = Iolo Manuscripts ..... Llandovery 1840.}
twyni (also -au) ‘tumps’,
rhwydi (usually rhwydau) nets
meini ‘stones’ is a late formation for main, singular maen.
lloi {= calves}, Section ::133.
::147.
-i and -ydd are added to
tref ‘town’, plural trefi or trefydd;
cantref ‘cantred’,
cartref ‘home’,
eglwys ‘church’,
plwyf ‘parish’,
fforest ‘forest’.
Nac undydd drefydd drwg
Nac unnos o Forgannwg.-D.G. 3.
‘[I will not go] one day to bad towns, or one night from Glamorgan.’
{D.G. = Dafydd ap Gwilym (
Ni cheisiwn nef na’i threfi
Be gwypwn nas cai hwn hi. - H.S.
’I would not seek heaven and its abodes if knew that he would not attain it.’
{H.S. = Hywel Swrdwal
(Montgomeryshire), circa 1450; reference to Gwaith
Barddonol Hywel Swrdwal a’i fab Ieuan, editor J. C. Morrice, Bangor 1908.}
RHANNAU
HEB EU HYCHWANEGU ETO: ::148 ::149 ::150 ::151 ::152 ::153 ::154 ::155 ::156
::157 ::158 ::159
::160.
Double plurals are not uncommon;
they are formed in the following ways:
(1) A second plural ending is added to the first; thus
Singular (Plural / Double Plural)
celain corpse (celanedd / celaneddau)
neges errand (negesau / negeseuau)
peth thing (pethau / petheuau)
esgid shoe (esgidiau / esgid(i)euau)
mach surety (meichiau meichiafon)
câr kinsman (carant / carennydd)
(2) A plural ending is added to a
plural formed by affection; thus
Singular (Plural / Double Plural)
cloch bell ( elych / clychau )
sant saint ( saint / seintiau )
angel angel ( engyl / old engylion,
now angylion
paladr ray ( pelydr / pelydrau )
ty^ house ( tai / teiau )
Lle rhyfedd i falchedd.fod,
Yw teiau yn y tywod. - I.B.H. ieu. 52.
{= Ieuan Brydydd Hir ieuaf, properly Ieuan Fardd (cf.
p.155 below) = Evan Evans (Cardiganshire) 1731-89; reference to Gwaith y Parchedig Evan Evans (Ieuan Brydydd
Hir), editor D. Silvan Evans, Caernarfon 1876. }
‘A strange place for pride to be is houses in the sand.’
(3) A noun with a plural ending has its vowels affected as an additional sign
of the plural
Singular – {English Translation} - Plural - Double
Plural
câr kinsman ( carant / ceraint )
brawd brother ( broder / brodyr )
adain wing ( adanedd / adenydd )
In these the simple plural is now obsolete, so that the double plural has
become the ordinary plural.
::161. The diminutive plural endings -ach and -os are generally added to plural nouns, thus forming double
plurals. -ach expresses contempt, -os either contempt or endearment.
Thus:
Singular - {English
Translation} - Plural -
Diminutive Double Plural
dyn man ( dynion / dynionach )
crydd shoemaker ( cryddion / cryddionach )
draen thorn ( drain / dreiniach )
plentyn child ( plant / plantos )
gwraig wife ( gwragedd / gwrageddos )
dilledyn garment ( dillad / dillados )
ci dog ( cw^n / cynos )
ty^ house ( tai / teios )
pryf worm ( pryfed / pryfetach )
merch daughter ( merched / merchetos )
As in the last two examples a final media is sometimes hardened, Section ::127.
As in dreiniach -ach becomes -iach after ei.
In rare cases the ending is added to the singular; thus
carreg ‘stone’, diminutive plural caregos;
dernyn ‘fragment’, diminutive plural dernynnach.
RHANNAU HEB EU HYCHWANEGU ETO: ::162 ::163
Singular Doublets.
::164.
Two forms of the singular occur in some words, as cleddyf and cleddau
‘sword’, plural cleddau, so neddyf and nedda ‘adze’; dwfr
and dw^r ‘water’, plural dyfroedd;
dant and daint, plural dannedd Section ::136 (3);
dydd ‘day’ and dyw in dyw Sul ‘Sunday’;
gwryw, gwyryf, gwerydd ‘virgin’, plural gweryddon, also late gwyryfon,
an artificial form.
::165.
A few nouns have a singular form with, and one without, a singular ending; as deigryn
and deigr ‘tear’, plural dagrau;
erfyn and arf ‘weapon’, plural arfau;
edefyn and edau ‘thread’, plural edafedd.
::166.
Nouns ending in -yn or -en may have two singulars as follows:
(1) one with each ending, as ysgallen or ysgellyn ‘thistle’,
plural ysgall;
conyn ‘stalk’,
cawnen ‘rush’, plural cawn
(2) with different vowel changes: dalen or deilen ‘leaf’, plural dail.
RHANNAU HEB EU HYCHWANEGU ETO: ::167 ::168 ::169 ::170 ::171 ::172 ::173 ::174 ::175 ::176
::177.
Names of birds are epicenes, mostly feminine, as
y fwyalch or y fwyalchen ‘the blackbird’,
y fronfraith ‘the thrush’,
yr w^ydd ‘the goose’,
y gog ‘the cuckoo’,
y frân ‘the crow’;
but almost an equal number are masculine, as
eryr ‘eagle’,
dryw ‘wren’,
barcut ‘kite’
hedydd ‘lark’
alarch ‘swan’.
The male bird is in a few cases distinguished by prefixing ceiliog to
the name, as
ceiliog mwyalch {= male blackbird}
ceiliog bronfraith {= male thrush};
the two are compounded in
ceiliágwydd {wy = [ui] }‘gander’ (with -a-
as in pechádur {= sinner} beside pechod
{= sin}).
The names of one or two male animals are formed in a similar manner:
bwch gafr ‘he-goat’,
gwrcath ‘tom-cat’.
Naw mwy frag na cheiliagwydd,
Naw gwell synnwyr na gw^ydd. -S.T.
{= Siôn Tudur (Wigwer, St. Asaph), died 1602.}
‘Nine times more boastful [literally: his boast] than a gander;
nine times more sensible than a goose.’
::178.
The gender of nouns denoting inanimate objects or abstractions can only to a
very limited extent be determined by the meaning.
::179.
The following nouns are masculine:
(1) tymor ‘season’, and names of seasons: gwanwyn {= spring}, haf {=
summer}, hydref {= autumn}, gaeaf
{= winter}; G(a)rawys {= Lent}, cynhaeaf {=
harvest, harvest-time}.
(2) mis ‘month’, and the names of the months.
(3) dydd ‘day’ and names of days:
Dydd Llun {= Monday},
Dydd Iau or Difiau {= Thursday},
Nadolig {= Christmas},
Pasg {= Easter},
Calan {= New Year’s Day},
Sulgwyn {= Whit Sunday}.
But gwyl is feminine, so that
Gwyl Fair ‘Lady Day’, etc. are feminine.
(4) gwynt ‘wind’, and the names of points of the
compass:
gogledd {= north},
dwyrain {= east},
dehau {= south},
gorllewin {= west}.
(5) Nouns denoting material or substance, as
aur {= gold},
arian {= silver},
haearn {= iron},
efydd {= brass},
pren {= wood},
derw {= oak wood},
ffawydd {= beech wood},
glo {= coal},
maen {= stone},
pridd {= earth, soil},
calch {= lime, chalk},
clai {= clay},
tail {= dung},
gwair {= grass, hay},
gwellt {= straw},
yd {= corn},
bwyd {= food},
bara {= bread},
cig {= meat},
gwaed {= blood},
gwin {= wine},
cwrw {= beer},
dwfr {= water},
gwydr {= glass},
lledr {= leather},
lliain {= cloth},
sidan {= silk},
glaw {= rain},
eira {= snow},
etc.
(6) Verbal nouns, Section ::276 (2).
RHANNAU HEB EU HYCHWANEGU ETO ::180 ::181 ::182
::183. The following endings form
derivatives having the same gender as the noun to which they are affixed:
-an diminutive, as
maban {= infant, from mab = son}masculine,
gwreigan {= little old woman, from gwraig
= woman} feminine,
dynan {little man or little woman, from dyn
= person} common gender
-aid ‘-ful’, as
crochanaid {= cauldronful, from crochan
= cauldron}masculine,
llwyaid {= spoonful, from llwy = spoon}
feminine.
-od ‘blow’ (earlier -awd), as
dyrnod {= a blow with the fist, from dwrn
= fist} masculine,
ffonnod {= a blow with a stick, from ffon
= stick} feminine.
RHANNAU HEB
EU HYCHWANEGU ETO ::184 ::185
::186
ADJECTIVES
::187.
Adjectives are inflected for number, gender and comparison.
NUMBER
::188.
The plural of adjectives is formed like that of nouns, except that only the
first three ways, Section ::130, are applicable. It is always formed
from the masculine singular
.
::189.
The change is ultimate i- affection, Section ::121; cf. Section
::131. The only vowel which is affected in plural adjectives is a;
thus:
a > ai
bychan little, plural = bychain
llydan broad, plural = llydain
buan quick, plural = buain
truan wretched, plural = truain
ieuanc young, plural = ieuainc
byddar deaf, plural = byddair
a > ei
hardd handsome, plural = heirdd
marw dead, plural = meirw
garw rough, plural = geirw
a > ÿ
cadarn strong, plural = cedyrn, old cedeirn
Celyd, in which the e of caled is affected, appears to be
artificial, and comparatively late (F.55,87, early 18th century);
{= Flores Poetarum Britannivorum Collected by
J. D. [Dr. John Davies]. Mwythig (
the old plural is caled like the singular, later caledion also.
Similarly Cymraeg {= Welsh as regards
language}is plural as well as singular; e.g. llyfrau Cymraeg {= Welsh-language books, books in Welsh}
RHANNAU HEB
EU HYCHWANEGU ETO ::189 ::190
::191 ::192 ::193
::194 ::195
::196. Many superlatives have plural forms which are
substantival only; one, hynaif
‘ancestors’ is formed by affection, this is now replaced by hynafiaid. The others are formed by
adding -ion or -iaid, as goreuon ‘best’ (of
persons or things), cyfneseifiaid, singular cyfnesaf ‘next of kin’. Two, eithafoed
pellafoedd, both meaning ‘uttermost
parts’ are peculiar in having -oedd;
for the former eithafion is found;
this is now used for ‘extremes’ abstract also.
::197.
The plurals of derivatives in -ig, -og,
-ol, -us, Section ::194 (3), are used as nouns; as boneddigion Salmau. cvii 40,
{Efe a dywallt
dirmyg ar foneddigion, ac a wna iddo deuluoedd fel praidd
Psalm 107:40 He poureth contempt upon princes, and causeth
them to wander in the wilderness, [where there is] no way.}
y dysgedigion ‘the learned’
y cyfoethogion ‘the wealthy’,
marwolion ‘mortals’,
rheidusion ‘needy ones’.
::198.
Many compounds have plurals used as nouns only, as
cyfoedion ‘contemporaries’,
anwariaid ‘savages’,
y ffyddloniad ‘the faithful’,
pengyniaid and pengrynion ‘round-heads’,
prydferthion ‘beauties’ abstract.
GENDER.
::199.
Many adjectives containing w or y have feminine forms in which these
vowels are affected to o or e respectively, Section ::120.
The change takes place chiefly in monosyllables. The quantity of the affected
vowel is the same
as that of the unaffected.
There is no distinctive form for the feminine plural.
::200. In the following adjectives the vowel is affected as above when
they are feminine:
blwng {=
dismal}
brwnt {=
dirty, cruel}
crwm {=
crooked, stooped}
crwn {= round}
dwfn {= deep}
llwfr {=
cowardly}
llwm {=
bare, desolate}
mwll {=
sultry, muggy, close}
mws { [muus] }
{= stinking, mouldy}
pwl {=
dull, not sharp}
tlws {=
pretty}
trwm {=
heavy}
trwsgl {=
clumsy}
brych {=
spotted, brindled}
byr {=
short}
cryf {=
strong}
cryg {=
hoarse}
ffyrf {=
thick, stout}
gwlyb {=
wet}
gwyn {=
white}
gwyrdd {=
green}
sych {=
dry}
syth {=
straight}
tyn {=
tight}
and some old participial forms, such as
bwlch ‘battered, cut’,
trwch ‘cut’,
twll ‘perforated’,
twnn ‘broken’.
A golyth yw y galon
Erddi, ac am dani’n donn. - Gr.O. 30.
{= Goronwy Owen (
‘And the [= my] heart is weary for her, and broken on her account.’
::201. In the following the unaffected as well as the
affected form is used as feminine:
fflwch {=
generous, abundant}
pwdr {=
rotten, lazy}
rhwth {=
gaping}
swrth; {=
lethargic, listless}
clyd {= cosy}
crych {= wrinkled, curly, rippled}
chwyrn {=
rapid, violent}
gwydn {=
tough}
gwymp {=
splendid, fair}
hyll {=
ugly}
Perhaps the affection of these is artificial; thus while the bards use clêd, the
spoken feminine is clyd { [kliid] }, which is found as feminine in Early
Medieval verse (B.B. 62).
{= The Black
Book of Carmarthen, end of 12th century; editor J. Gwenogvryn Evans,
Pwllheli 1906.}
Dos nesnes i’r cynhesrwydd,
I’r adail gled rhed yn rhwydd.
- L.M.; D.T. 147.
{= Lewis Morris, Llywelyn Ddu o Fôn, 1701-65; Diddanwch Teuluaidd: neu Waith Beirdd Môn
2nd edition Caernarfon 1817}
’Go nearer and nearer to the warmth, to the snug building run freely.’
::202. In the following the vowel is never affected, but the
unaffected form is both masculine and feminine:
brwd {=
hot, fervent}
drwg {=
bad}
glwth {=
gluttonous, greedy}
gwrdd {=
brave, valiant}
gwrm {=
brown, dark-brown}
llwgr {=
corrupt}
dygn {=
severe, hard}
grym (= grymus) {= powerful}
gwych {=
splendid}
gwyllt {=
wild}
hy {= bold,
daring }
hydr {=
strong}
myg {
[miig] }, {=
glorious}
rhydd {= free}
rhyn {=
stiff; shivery}
syn {=
surprised, dumbfounded}
Hed drosof hyd dir Esyllt
O berfedd gwlad Wynedd wyllt. - D.G. 523.
{= Dafydd ap Gwilym (
‘Fly for my sake as far as the
::203. (i) The affection takes place rarely in uncompounded
polysyllables.
melyn ‘yellow’ has feminine melen always.
The form manol occurs beside manwl, but the latter is used as
feminine For tywyll a purely
artificial feminine form tywell is
used by the bards, apparently in imitation of the well-known couplet given
below. The fact that the adjectival was originally tywyll { [Section ::] } proves
that tywell (never heard in the
spoken language) is a mere affectation.
Nos da i’r Ynys Dywell;
Ni wn oes un ynys well.- L.G.C. F.N. 100.
{= Lewis Glyn Cothi, floruit 1440-80; reference to Gwaith Lewis Glyn Cothi ....
‘Good night to the
(The
(2) In Medieval Welsh and the Early Modern bards derivative adjectives in -lyd have feminine forms in -led, as creulyd ‘bloody’, feminine creuled;
tanllyd ‘fiery’, feminine tanlled,etc.
(3) But the bulk of polysyllabic adjectives with w or y in the ultima,
which are not conscious compounds, have no distinctive feminine form; e.g
amlwg {=
evident}
chwimwth {=
nimble, quick}
teilwng {=
worthy}
melys {=
sweet }
dyrys {=
tangled, complicated}
newydd {=
new}
pybyr {=
staunch, valiant, loyal}
etc.
::204. The affection takes place in compounds.
(1) In the second element when it is an adjectival, as in
claerwyn feminine claerwen {=
brilliantly white, pure white}
bronwyn feminine bronwen {= white-breasted}etc.;
gwallt-felyn feminine gwallt-felen {=
yellow-haired},
pendwll feminine pendoll ‘with perforated head’,
as in gêl bendoll ‘leech’.
(2) In the first element, as tlos-deg
D.G. 518.
{= Dafydd ap Gwilym (
(3) Rarely in both, as cron-ferf D.G.
38 ‘round and firm’.
{= Dafydd ap Gwilym (
But old compounds consisting of prefix + adjective, and others not consciously
felt to be compounds, retain their vowel unaffected, as
hy-dyn {=
very tight},
cyn-dyn
cymysg {=
mixed},
edlym {=
sharp, keen},
cyffelyb {=
similar},
etc.
::205. The following formations are irregular.
(1) The affection takes place in the penult in
bychan feminine bechan,
cwta feminine sometimes cota,
and sometimes in compared adjectives, Secrion ::209.
(2) brith ‘speckled’ has feminine braith.
Brith yw’r heddwch trwch, nid
rhwydd;
Braith yw’r gyfraith, ac afrwydd.
- M.R.
‘Motley is the broken peace, not smooth; motley is the law, and arduous.’
{ Maredudd ap Rhys, c. 1440.}
COMPARISON
::206. The adjectival in Welsh has four degrees of comparison, the
positive, the equative, the comparative, and the superlative.
::207. The derived degrees are formed from the positive by the
addition of -ed, -ach, -af
respectively. Before these endings the hard mutation of b, d, g takes place, Section ::127, even when the positive
ends in one of these consonants with
a liquid or nasal, as in budr
‘dirty’, butraf ‘dirtiest’.
Final -f of the superlative is
sometimes dropped in poetry, Section ::20. All mutable vowels are
mutated, Section ::114. Thus the regular comparison is as follows:
Positive (Equative / Comparative / Superlative)
glân clean ( glaned / glanach / glanaf)
teg fair ( teced / tecach / tecaf)
gwlyb wet ( gwlyped / gwlypach / gwlypaf)
tlawd poor ( tloted / tlotach / tlotaf )
budr dirty ( butred / butrach / butraf)
gwydn tough ( gwytned / gwytnach / gwytnaf)
hyfryd pleasant ( hyfryted / hyfrytach / hyfrytaf)
huawdl eloquent ( huotled / huotlach / huotlaf)
::208. In Medieval Welsh and the Early Modern bards the consonant
was not hardened in the comparative; thus the comparison was
teg, teced, tegach, tecaf
tlawd, tloted, tlodach, tlotaf
Cloi dy dda, caledu’dd wyd,
Caledach na’r clo ydwyd.-
G.Gl. c. i. 195.
‘Thou art locking up thy wealth, [and] hardening; thou art harder than the
lock.’
{= Guto’r Glyn (Denbighshire.), floruit 1450-80; Ceinion Llenyddiaeth Gymreig.... editor
Owen Jones; 2 vols.,
The hard mutation was extended to the comparative from the equative and
superlative, and is due to an -h-
which originally formed part of the endings of the latter, Section ::127;
the -h- is sometimes found written in
Medieval Welsh., as in
ky vawhet R.M. 149 ‘as vile’, mwyhaf {=
greatest} ditto 83
{Richard Morris (brother of Lewis Morris), 1703-79;
editor of Bible 1746, 1752.}
::209. The derived degrees are the same for masculine and feminine.
But in Medieval Welsh and later the endings were sometimes added to the
feminine positive, as
gwenned {= as white},
tromaf {=
heaviest}, D.G. 402
{= Dafydd ap Gwilym (
berraf F. 17,
{ = Flores
Poetarum Britannivorum Collected by J. D. [Dr. John Davies]. Mwythig (
wennaf Wen (in the song “Mentra
Gwen”).
These are apparently new formations, which never became general.
I’W HYCHWANEGU:
::210
::211. Equatives with the prefix cy- may have before this the prefix go-, as gogymaint etc.
Nid gogyhyd esgeiriau y cloff Diarhebion xxvi 7;
{Nid gogyhyd esgeiriau y cloff; felly dameg yng
ngenau ffyliaid
Proverbs 26:7 The legs of the lame are not equal: so is a parable in the mouth
of fools.}
yn ogyfuwch â Duw Philipiaid ii 6
{Yr hwn, ac efe yn ffurff Duw, ni thybiodd yn drais
fod yn ogyfuwch â Duw
Philippians 2:6 Who, being in the form of God, thought it not robbery to be
equal with God}
::212. The following have defective comparison:
(1) Superlative eithaf ‘uttermost’=
Latin extimus; the old comparative
stem is seen in the preposition eithr
= Latin extra.
(2) Comparative amgen or amgenach ‘other, better’.
::213. Some nouns take the endings of comparison, and thereby become
adjectives of the respective degrees. Thus
pen ‘head ‘, superlative pennaf ‘chief ’;
rhaid ‘need’, cyn rheitied ‘as necessary’, rheitiach,
rheitiaf; elw ‘profit’, elwach
‘better off’;
blaen ‘point’, also adjectival
‘fore’, blaenaf ‘foremost’;
ôl ‘rear’, also adjectival ‘hind’, olaf last’;
diwedd ‘end’, superlative diwethaf or diwaethaf ‘last’, re-formed in the late period as diweddaf. Others occur in Medieval Welsh
as gwraf {
[GU rav] }, ‘most manly’, amserach
‘more timely’, etc.
::214. Equative adjectives are formed from many nouns by prefixing cyf-; as cyfwrdd ‘of the same rank’,
cyfliw ‘of the same colour’,
cyfoed ‘of the same age’,
cyfryw ‘of the same kind, such’.
Also by prefixing un, as
unlliw ‘of the same colour’,
unwedd ‘like’, Section ::210,
Note 6, example.
I’W HYCHWANEGU:
::215
::216 ::217
NUMERALS
::218. The cardinal
numbers in Welsh are as follows:
1 un
2 masculine dau, feminine dwy
3 masculine tri, feminine tair
4 masculine pedwar, feminine pedair
5 pump, pum
6 chwech
7 saith
8 wÿth
9 naw
10 deg, deng
11 un ar ddeg
12 deuddeg
13 masculine tri ar ddeg, feminine tair ar ddeg
14 masculine pedwar ar ddeg, feminine
pedair ar ddeg
15 pymtheg
16 un ar bymtheg
17 masculine dau ar bymtheg, feminine
dwy ar bymtheg
18 deunaw (in counting, tri or tair ar bymtheg)
19 masculine pedwar ar bymtheg,
feminine pedair ar bymtheg
20 ugain
21 un ar hugain
22 masculine dau ar hugain, feminine dwy ar hugain
30 deg ar hugain
31 un ar ddeg ar hugain
32 deuddeg ar hugain
40 deugain
41 deugain ac un or un a degain
50 deg a deugain
60 trigain
80 pedwar ugain
100 cant,can
120 chwech ugain, chweugain
140 saith ugain
200 deucant or dau cant
300 trichant or tri chant
1000 mil
2000 dwyfil or dwy fil
10,000 déng mil, myrdd
100,000 can mil or canmil
1,000,000 myrddiwn { [MØRDD-yun] }, miliwn
{ [MIL-yun] }
::219. Some of the
cardinal numbers have plural forms:
deuoedd, deuwedd, dwyoedd ‘twos’,
trioedd ‘threes’,
chwechau ‘sixes’,
degau, ‘tens’,
ugeiniau ‘scores’,
cannoedd ‘hundreds’,
miloedd ‘thousands’,
miliynau {
[mil-YØ-ne] }, myrddiynau { [mørdh-YØ-ne] }, ‘millions’.
::220. The ordinal numbers are as follows:
1 cyntaf
2 ail
3 masculine trydydd, feminine trydedd
4 masculine pedwerydd, feminine pedwaredd
5 pumed
6 chweched
7 seithfed
8 wÿthfed
9 nawfed
10 degfed
11 unfed ar ddeg
12 deuddegfed
13 masculine trydydd ar ddeg,
feminine trydedd ar ddeg
14 masculine pedwerydd ar ddeg,
feminine pedwaredd ar ddeg
15 pymthegfed
16 unfed ar bymtheg
17 ail ar bymtheg
18 deunawfed
20 ugeinfed
30 degfed ar hugain
40 deugeinfed
41 unfed a deugain
100 canfed
1000 milfed
::221.
(1) Multiplicatives are formed by means of gwaith feminine preceded by cardinal
numbers, thus
un waith or únwaith ‘once’,
dwy waith or dwywaith ‘twice,’
tair gwaith or teirgwaith {= three times}
pedair gwaith {= four times}
pum waith {=
five times},
chwe gwaith {=
six times}
séithwaith or saith waith {= seven times}
wythwaith {=
eight times},
nawwaith {=
nine times},
dengwaith {=
ten times},
unwaith ar ddeg {= eleven times},
ugeinwaith {=
twenty times},
canwaith {=
a hundred times},
milwaith {=
a thousand times}
(2) But before a comparative the masculine cardinal only is generally used, the
two sometimes compounded:
pum mwy - D.W. 146
Dewi Wyn o Eifion = Dafydd Owen (Llanystumdwy), 1784- 1841; reference to Blodau Arfon, Caerlleon, 1842.
‘five [times] more’,
saith mwy Lefiticus xxvi 18, 21,
{Ac os er hyn
ni wrandewch arnaf, yma y chwanegaf eich cosbi chwi saith mwy am eich pechodau
Leviticus 26:18 And if ye will not yet for all this hearken
unto me, then I will punish you seven times more for your sins.
Ac os rhodiwch yng ngwrthwyneb i mi, ac
ni fynnwch wrando arnaf fi; mi a chwanegwch bla saith mwy arnoch yn ôl eich
pechodau Leviticus 26:21 And if ye walk contrary unto me, and will not
hearken unto me; I will bring seven times more plagues upon you according to
your sins.}
deuwell D.G. 157,
{= quoted from Barddoniaeth
Dafydd ap Gwilym but not by Dafydd ap Gwilym; these quotations are either
from poems printed as the work of others, e.g. G.Gr. { Gruffydd Gryg
(Anglesey), circa 1370.}; or from old poems wrongly attributed to Dafydd
ap Gwilym; in these cases the author’s name is given; where no author is
mentioned the lines are from late imitations by Iolo Morganwg}
can gwell {= a hundred times better}
dau lanach {=
twice as fair}
canmwy or can mwy {= a hundred times more}
Moes ugeinmil, moes gánmwy,
A moes, O moes, im un mwy.- Anon.
M.E. i 140.
{Mil o Englynion = Pigion Englynion fy Ngwlad Vol. i, 2nd edition.,
‘Give me twenty thousand, give a hundred times as many, and give, Oh give, me
one more.’
(3) A masculine cardinal is used before another cardinal, as
tri saith ‘three [times] seven’. This
method is now used to read out numbers in the Arabic notation; thus 376, tri chant, saith deg a chwech.
::222. Distributives were formerly formed by putting bob before a cardinal, the initial of
which was softened; thus
bob ddau ‘two by two’,
bob dri ‘three by three’.
In the late period yn has been
introduced, thus bob yn ddau, bob yn dri.
::223. Fractions:
½ hanner
1/3 traean
¼ pedwaran, chwarter;
1/8 wythfed
1/100 canfed
2/3 deuparth
¾ tri chwarter
3/8 tri wythfed, etc
COMPOUND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
::224. Either of the elements of a compound may be a noun (n) or an
adjective (a);
thus we have four possible types
1. n-n;
2. a-n;
3. a-a;
4- n-a.
Examples:
1. háf-ddydd {= summer’s day};
2. hir-ddydd {= a long day};
3. cláer-wyn {= brilliant white};
4. pén-wyn {= white-haired}
I’W HYCHWANEGU:
::225
::226 ::227 ::228
::229 ::230
PRONOUNS
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
::231. The Welsh personal pronouns are either independent or
dependent.
::232. The independent personal pronouns are the forms used when the
pronoun is not immediately dependent on a noun, a verb, or an inflected
preposition. They occur
(a) at the beginning of a Sentence;
(b) after a conjunction or uninflected preposition, including fel {= like, as}, megis {=
like, as}
(c) after ys ‘it is’, ai ‘that it is’,
the uninflected ebe, ebr Section ::333.
::233.
Independent personal pronouns are either simple, reduplicated or conjunctive.
Thus:
(1) Simple:
singular 1. mi
singular 2. ti
singular 3. masculine ef, feminine hi
plural 1. ni
plural 2. chwi
plural 3. hwy {-ui-}, hwynt {-ui-}.
(2) Reduplicated:
singular 1. myfi
singular 2. tydi
singular 3. masculine efo, fo (fe, efe), feminine hyhi
plural 1. nyni
plural 2. chwychwi
plural 3. hwynt-hwy {-ui-, -ui-}.
(3) Conjunctive:
singular 1. minnau
singular 2. tithau
singular 3. masculine yntau, feminine hithau
plural 1. ninnau
plural 2. chithau
plural 3. hwyntau {-ui-}, hwythau
{-ui-},
NOTES.-
1. The 3rd plural forms were wy, wynt, wyntwy, wynteu, with
no h-, in Middle Welsh.
2., The reduplicated forms are usually accented on the ultima:
myfí {mø-VII}, tydí myfí {tø-DII}, efó {e-VOO},
etc. But they were formerly accented on the penult also, mýfi, týdi, éfo,
etc. This accentuation is sometimes met with in poetry; it survives to some
extent in Powys; and in the
3. After a {= and}, tua {= towards}, gyda {=
with}, na {= nor} the unaccented
y of myfi, tydi is sometimes elided, thus
a m’fi, a th’di, generally wrongly divided thus
a’m fi BL. 123,
{= Blodeu-gerdd Cymry...; editor D. Jones,
Amwythig (Shrewsbury), 1779}
na’m fi ditto 246
ath ti 121
{= Llyfr yr Ancr, 1346 = The Elucidatrium and
other tracts in Welsh...., editor J. Morris Jones and J. Rhys, Oxford
1894.}
ath di W.LL. 8
{= Wiliam Lly^n (?Lly^n; resided in Oswestry),
1535-80; reference to Barddoniaeth Wiliam Lly^n...’ editor J. C. Morrice,
nath di ditto 5.
4. efo is probably originally an emphatic rather than a reduplicated
form. It was shortened to fo, which in
5. The conjunctive forms generally mean ‘I too’, ‘thou too’, etc., or ‘even 1’,
‘but I’, ‘I for my part’, ‘while I’, etc.; but the added conjunctional meaning
is often too subtle to be rendered in translation.
::234. Dependent personal pronouns are either prefixed, infixed or
affixed.
::235.
(i) The forms of the prefixed pronouns are given in the following table. The
initial mutation caused by each is given in square brackets after it.
(1) Simple:
singular 1. fy [nasal mutation]
singular 2. dy [soft mutation]
singular 3. masculine i (written ei) [soft mutation]
singular 3. feminine i (written ei) [spirant mutation]
plural 1. yn (written ein) [radical]
plural 2. ych (written eich) [radical]
plural 3. eu [radical]
(2) These pronouns stand in the genitive case immediately before a noun or
verbal noun, thus fy mhen ‘my head’, cynfy nyfod ‘before my
coming’. They are always proclitics, Section ::71; when emphasis is
required an affixed auxiliary pronoun is added to receive it, as fy mhen
i ‘MY head’, Section ::72.
NOTES.
1. fy and dy often lose their y and appear as f’
and
d’ before a vowel, more especially in poetry, as -
F’ eniaid, cyfod i fyny,
Agor y ddaearddor ddu. - LL.G., F.N. 28. {=
Llywelyn Goch Amheurig Hen, c. 1380; Y Flodeugerdd Newydd..., editor W.
J. Gruffydd;
’My soul, arise, open the black door of earth.’
Also in prose, as
yn f’ymyl {= my side}
B.CW. 6 {= Gweledigaethau y Bardd Cwsc [by
Ellis Wynne], 1703; reprint, editor J. Morris Jones,
f’arglwydd {= my lord} ditto 8.
2. fy is sometimes reduced to ’y where the nasal mutation (or an
initial m) shows clearly that the pronoun, and not the definite article, is
meant, as ’y modryb B.CW. 13 {= Gweledigaethau
y Bardd Cwsc [by Ellis Wynne], 1703; reprint, editor J. Morris Jones,
After a. vowel even the ’y may be elided, leaving only the initial nasal
of the noun to represent the pronouns as
newydd roi ’mhen i lawr {=
having just put down my head} B.CW. 54
{= Gweledigaethau y Bardd Cwsc [by Ellis
Wynne], 1703; reprint, editor J. Morris Jones,
and
Mae ffrydiau ’ngorfoledd yn tarddu
{the streams of my jubilation are flowing forth}
in the hymn for ffrydiau fy ngorfoledd.
Mae ’mlinion hwyrion oriau
A’m nos hir yn ymneshau. - R.G.D. 151.
{= Robert ab Gwilym Ddu = Robert Williams (Llanystumdwy),
1767-1850; reference to Gardd Eifion. . . . Dolgellau 1841.}
‘My weary late hours and my long night are approaching.’
3. The third singular form is i, which is now always written ei,
a misspelling introduced by William Salesbury, who thought the pronoun was
derived from the Latin ejus. The misspelling is retained because of its
convenience; but the written ei should be read i, thus ar ei
ben should be read ar i ben, etc. The forms ein and eich
are similar misspellings of yn and ych.
4. The third singular ei ‘his’ and ei ‘her’ are distinguished by
the initial mutation that follows them, thus ei ben ‘his head’, ei
phen ‘her head’.
5 The third plural eu is an old form retained in writing though it had
become i the spoken language before the Modern period. It is
distinguished from the singular i by the radical initial that follows
it.
6. ein, eich and a peculiar 3rd plural ill are used before
numerals,
thus ein dau ‘we two’, ill dau ‘they two’.
RHANNAU HEB EU HYCHWANEGU ETO: ::236 ::237
238. (1) The forms of the possessive
adjectives in use in Early Modern Welsh are as follows:
Singular
1. mau
2. tau
3. masculine eiddo, feminine eiddi
Plural
1. einym
2. einwch
3. eiddunt
These are the same as the Medieval forms except that the vowels of the first
three are the regular Modern developments of the Medieval meu, teu,
eiddaw. But in the 15th and 16th
centuries the series was re-formed on the analogy of the 3rd person forms,
though mau and tau continued in use much later in poetry; thus:
Singular
1. eiddof
2. eiddot
3. masculine eiddo, feminine eiddi
Plural
1. eiddom
2. eiddoch
3. eiddunt
In the late period eiddunt is generally misspelt eiddynt.
(2) Auxiliary affixed pronouns, Section ::237.(3),. are sometimes added to the
forms, thus mau i (later mau fi), tau di, eiddo ef,
eiddi hi, etc.; also mau innau (mau finnau), etc.;
and with the modern forms, eiddof fi, eiddot ti, etc.
(3) Pronominal possession is generally expressed by genitive prefixed and
infixed pronouns, so that the use of these adjectives is comparatively rare.
They are placed after their nouns, which are usually preceded by the article,
as
y ty^ tau D.G. 18 ‘thy house’ {D.G. = Dafydd ap Gwilym (
y Fôn fau Gr.O. 6 ‘my Môn’, {Gr.O. = Goronwy Owen (
y llew einym L.G.C. 183 ‘our lion’.
{L.G.C. = Lewis Glyn Cothi, floruit 1440-80; reference to Gwaith Lewis Glyn Cothi ....
Danfonwn o’r memrwn mau
Lwyth eryr o lythyrau. - D.N.
I would send [her] of my parchment an eagle-load of letters.
{D.N. = Dafydd Nanmor (Beddgelert), circa 1460.}
Sometimes a prefixed or infixed pronoun takes the place of the article, as
f’Arglwydd mau E.P. PS. cx 1, {E.P. ·= Edmwnd
Prys, Archdeacon of Merioneth, 1541-1623; reference to Edmwnd Prys ... gan T. R. Roberts (Asaph), Caernarfon 1899. PS. refers
to his metrical version of the Psalms.}
o’th law dau T.A. G. 229. {T.A. = Tudur
Aled (
The noun may, however, be indefinite, as
Ac i wneuthur mesurau
O benillion mwynion mau.-
D.G. 289.
And to make measures out of sweet verses of mine.
{D.G. = Dafydd ap Gwilym (
The adjective is sometimes placed before its noun, forming a compound with it,
Section ::226, as
meu gerydd B.B. 108;
{B.B. = The Black Book of Carmarthen, end of
12th century; editor J. Gwenogvryn Evans, Pwllheli 1906.}
mau boen D.G. 123,
{D.G. = Dafydd ap Gwilym (
mau ofid D.G. 225,
einym adail D.G. 20.
(4) The possessive adjectivesare also used predicatively, e.g. as complements
of the verb to be, expressed or implied, as
hynny sydd fau D.G. 46 ‘that is
mine’,
sydd dau di D.G. 209;
Byddant yn eiddot ti Diarhebion 5:17
{Byddant
yn eiddot ti dy hun yn unig, ac nid yet eiddo dieithriaid gyda thi. / Let them
be only thine own, and not strangers' with thee.}
Chwilio’r celloedd oedd eiddi,
A chwilio heb ei chael hi. - R.G.D. 96.
’Searching the chambers that were hers, and searching without finding her.’
{R.G.D. = Robert ab Gwilym Ddu = Robert Williams (Llanystumdwy), 1767-1850;
reference to Gardd Eifion. . . .
Dolgellau 1841.}
They are also used as nouns with the article, as
mi biau’r tau, I.G. 318 ‘I own thine’,
{I.G. = Iolo Goch
(Denbighshire), floruit 1370-1405; reference to Gweithiau Iolo Goch ... editor Charles Ashton, Cymmrodorion Society
1896.}
yw’r tau Section ::153,
oddiwrth yr eiddo yntau Hebreaid
4:10 ‘from his’.
{Canys yr hwn a aeth i mewn i’w orffwysfa ef, hwnnw hefyd a orffwysodd oddi
wrth ei weithredoedd ei hun, megis y gwnaeth Duw oddi wrth yr eiddo yntau. /
For he that is entered into his rest, he also hath ceased from his own works,
as God did from his.}
The 3rd singular masculine eiddo may have a noun depending on
it in the genitive, as
eiddo’r Arglwydd Corinthiaid-1 10:26 ‘the Lords’;
{Canys eiddo’r Arglwydd y ddaear, a’i chyflawnder. / For the earth is the
Lord's, and the fulness thereof.}
eiddo thus became an ordinary noun meaning ‘property’.
RHANNAU HEB EU HYCHWANEGU ETO:
::239 ::240 ::241 ::242 ::243 ::244 ::245
::246 ::247 ::248 ::249
::250. Pronominalia expressing alternatives are substantival and
adjectival, definite and indefinite. Thus:
Substantival definite y naill ... y
llall ‘the one . . . the other’;
plural y naill... y lleill ‘the ones
the others’.
Substantival indefinite un ... arall
‘one ... another’;
plural rhai ... eraill ‘some. ... others’.
In the following list of adjectival forms gw^r, gwraig, gwy^r
show the position and mutation of the noun (see Section ::226 (8)):
Adjectival definite:
y naill w^r...y gw^r arall ‘the one man...the other man’;
y naill wraig... y wraig arall; {the one
woman... the other woman}
y naill wy^r... y gwy^r eraill; {the one set
of people... the other set of people}
RHANNAU HEB
EU HYCHWANEGU ETO ::251 ::252
::253 ::254 ::255
::256 ::257 ::258
::259 ::260 ::261
::262 ::263 ::264
::265 ::266
::267.
(1) The Welsh verb has three moods, the indicative, the subjunctive and the
imperative.
(2) The indicative mood has four tenses, the present, the imperfect, the past
(aorist or perfect), and the pluperfect.
(3) The subjunctive mood has two tenses, the present and the imperfect. But in
Modern Welsh the difference between the imperfect subjunctive and the imperfect
indicative is preserved in only a few irregular verbs.
(4) The imperative mood has one tense, the present. (It is really future, for
the action enjoined by the verb is necessarily TO COME at the time of
speaking.)
::268.
The present indicative is often future in meaning. In the spoken language this
is the usual meaning; the present sense is only retained in a few common verbs
such as
gwelaf ‘I see’,
clywaf ‘I hear’,
medraf ‘I can’,
meddaf ‘I say’,
credaf ‘I believe’,
gwn ‘I know’, etc.
Ordinarily the present meaning is expressed periphrastically, thus
mae’r adar yn canu ‘the birds are singing’.
RHANNAU HEB
EU HYCHWANEGU ETO ::269 ::270 ::271 ::272 ::273 ::274 ::275 ::276
THE REGULAR VERB.
::277. (1) The regular verb caraf ‘I
love’ is conjugated as follows:
(1) INDICATIVE MOOD.
.
|
......................Present Tense |
.......................Aorist Tense. |
||
|
singular |
plural |
singular |
plural |
|
1.
caraf |
1.
carwn |
1.
cerais |
1.
carasom |
|
2.
ceri |
2.
cerwch |
2.
ceraist |
2.
carasoch |
|
3.
câr |
3.
carant |
3.
carodd |
3.
carasant |
|
...............Impersonal: carwyd |
...................Impersonal: cerir |
||
|
......................Present Tense |
.......................Aorist Tense. |
||
|
singular |
plural |
singular |
plural |
|
1.
carwn |
1.
carem |
1.
caraswn |
1.
carasem |
|
2.
carud / carit |
2.
carech |
2.
carasud / carasit |
2.
carasech |
|
3.
carai |
3.
cerynt / carent |
3.
carasai |
3.
carasynt / carasent |
|
...............Impersonal: cerid |
...................Impersonal: caresid / carasid |
||
(2) SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
.
|
......................Present Tense |
.......................Aorist Tense. |
||
|
singular |
plural |
singular |
plural |
|
1.
carwyf |
1.
carom |
1.
carwn |
1.
carem |
|
2.
cerych |
2.
caroch |
2.
carud / carit |
2.
carech |
|
3.
caro |
3.
caront |
3.
carai |
3.
cerynt / carent |
|
...............Impersonal: carer |
...................Impersonal: cerid |
||
(3) IMPERATIVE MOOD.
.
|
......................Present Tense |
|
|
singular |
plural |
|
2.
ceâr |
2.
cerwch |
|
3.
cared |
3.
carent / carant |
|
...............Impersonal: carer |
|
(4) VERBAL NOUN.
caru
(5) VERBAL ADJECYIVES.
caredig, caradwy
(2) Stems ending in i { [y] }drop
this before i, y and the old u (now i) of the 2nd singular
imperfect and pluperfect . Section ::42; thus
rhodiaf { = I rove },
rhodir { = ‘it is roved’, one
roves},
rhodynt { = they used to rove},
rhodit (old rhodut) { =
you didn’t love - subjunctive},
the stem syllable, closed by the i, Section ::106, remains closed, so that the
consonant
is double; but this is only indicated in writing when the consonant is n
or r, as
son|iaf { = I mention},
son|nir { = one mentions} (for son|iir { [SON-yir] } Section ::110, Exceptions (2), ystyr|iaf, ystyr|rir (for ystyr|iir n|iir
{ [ø-STØR-yir] }.
Similarly stems ending in w drop this before w; as
galwaf ‘I call’
galwn ‘we call’ (for gal|wwn { [GAL-wun] }.
I’W
HYCHWANEGU
::278 ::279 ::280 ::281 ::282 ::283 ::284 ::285 ::286 ::287 ::288 ::289 ::290
::291 ::292 ::293 ::294 ::295 ::296 ::297 ::298 ::299
::300.
(1) gadaf ‘I leave, let, permit’ is conjugated regularly:
3rd singular present indicative gâd;
2nd singular imperative gâd, plural gédwch;
1st singular aorist gédais;
3rd singular present subjunctive gáto (gádo);
verb-noun gádael, gádel Section ::63, and, more rarely, gádu.
The negative na with the imperative gâd gives na âd,
which was contracted in Middle Welsh to nâd (nât R.P. 1216);
{= Red Book Poetry = The Poetry in the Red Book of
Hergest, editor J. Gwenogvryn Evans, Llanbedrog 1911 (issued 1921).
Reference to columns.}
and na ato {naa A to} became nato
{NA to}; from these comes the new verb nadaf
‘I forbid, prevent’, verb-noun nadu C.C. 187,
{= The Cefn Coch MSS. . . ., editor J. Fisher;
Liverpool 1899.} in some parts
nadel.
(2) gadaf is followed by i with the name of the person and a
verb-noun as object, as gad i mi fyned Ruth2:2 ‘let me go’;
{A Ruth y Foabes a ddywedodd wrth Naomi, Gad i mi
fyned yn awr i’r maes, a lloffa tywysennau ar ôl yr hwn y caffwyf ffafr yn ei
olwg. Hithau a ddywedodd wrthi, Dos, fy merch.
And Ruth the Moabitess said unto Naomi, Let me now go to the field, and glean
ears of corn after him in whose sight I shall find grace. And she said unto
her, Go, my daughter.}
Gedwch i blant bychain ddyfod attafi Marc 10:14;
{1620 version has: A’r Iesu pan welodd hynny, fu
anfodlon, ac a ddywedodd wrthynt, gadewch i blant bychain ddyfod ataf fi, ac na
waherddwch iddynt; canys eiddo’r cyfryw rai yw teyrnas Dduw.
But when Jesus saw it, he was much
displeased, and said unto them, Suffer the little children to come unto me, and
forbid them not: for of such is the kingdom of God.}
or without an object,
gad iddo Hosea 4:17 ‘leave him alone’.
{ Effraim a ymgysylltodd ag eilunod; gad iddo.
/ Ephraim is joined to idols: let him alone.}
With ar instead of i the sense is
‘to leave it to’, as
gadael arno ef drefnu ‘to leave it to him to arrange’.
Nadaf is similarly used with i (but not ar).
Gadaf may also have a noun object of the thing permitted, as
gad lonydd ‘be quiet’ (literally ‘allow peace’), if necessary with i
introducing the person, as gad lonydd iddo {leave
him alone, ‘allow peace to him’};
or may stand without an expressed object or remoter object, as
be gatai’r dagrau D.G. 84
‘if the tears permitted’.
{= Dafydd ap Gwilym (North Cardiganshire.), floruit
1350-80; reference to Barddoniaeth Dafydd ab Gwilym.... Llundain, 1789;
bracketed numbers refer to Cywyddau Dafydd ap Gwilym a’i Gyfoeswyr . . .,
editor Ifor Williams a T. Roberts, Bangor 1914; thus D.G. 70 (66) means that
the words will be found in p. 70 of the former, and p. 66 of the latter.}
Gwedd ewyn, cyd gweddiwyf,
Gadu ar Dduw rannu’r wyf. - D.G.
17.
‘[Maid of] the colour of foam, though I pray, leave it to God to dispose’.
{= Dafydd ap Gwilym (North Cardiganshire.), floruit
1350-80; reference to Barddoniaeth Dafydd ab Gwilym.... Llundain, 1789; bracketed numbers refer to Cywyddau
Dafydd ap Gwilym a’i Gyfoeswyr . . ., editor Ifor Williams a T. Roberts,
Bangor 1914; thus D.G. 70 (66) means that the words will be found in p. 70 of
the former, and p. 66 of the latter.}
nadodd .D.G. 105;
Nato Duw E.P. 274
‘God forbid’.
{= Edmwnd Prys, Archdeacon of Merioneth, 1541-1623;
reference to Edmwnd Prys ... gan T. R. Roberts (Asaph), Caernarfon 1899.
PS. refers to his metrical version of the Psalms.}
(3) gadawaf ‘I leave, leave behind’ is also conjugated regularly:
::3rd singular present indicativegédy Section ::279
(i);
::2nd singular imperative gádaw, gádo, plural gadéwch;
::1st singular aorist gadéwais;
::3rd singular present subjunctive gadáwo;
verb-noun gádaw, gádo Section ::116 (3).
::309. (1) The
present of the verb ‘to be’ is strictly present in sense, and is not used for
the future except, as in other languages, in speaking of something already
decided upon, as
yr wyf yn mynd yfory
‘I am going tomorrow’;
Y mae neithior yfory,
A mwnai’n fraisg yn Môn fry. - T.P.
‘There is a wedding-feast to-morrow, and money in profusion in Môn yonder.’
{= Tudur Penllyn (Merionethshire.), c. 1460.}
It also expresses a present persisting from the past, when followed (or
preceded) by er ‘since’ or ys, er ys, ers ‘for’; as
yr wyf yma er y Calan or ers mis
‘I have been here since New Year’s Day’ or ‘for a month’;
Yr wy’n dy garu er yn eneth P.T. 104
‘I have loved thee since [thou wert] a girl’;
{= Penillion Telyn, editor W. Jenkyn Thomas,
Caernarfon, 1894.}
ys gwers ydd wyf yn keissaw a olchei vyg {= vyng} cleddyff W. M.
487
‘for some time I have been seeking [one] who would burnish my sword’.
{= The White Book Mabinogion Ed. J. Gwenogvryn
Evans, Pwllheli 1907 (issued later, preface dated 1909). Reference to columns.}
So in French and German. The only other verbs used thus in Welsh are gwn
‘I know’ and adwaen ‘am acquainted with’.
(2) The second present is iterative or consuetudinal, some such extension as
‘sometimes’, ‘often’, ‘always’ being either expressed or understood; thus,
Byddaf yndychmygu weithian I.G.G. 219
{= Ieuan Glan Geirionydd = Evan Evans (Trefriw),
1795-1855; reference to Geirionydd, editor W. J. Roberts; Rhuthyn
[1862].}
‘I imagine sometimes’.
Byddaf yn cael p’wc o bleser wrth ... T. ii 214
{Talhaiarn = John Jones, Llanfair Talhaearn, 1810-69; reference to Gwaith
Talhaiarn; i, London 1853; ii, London 1862.}
‘I derive a good deal of pleasure from...’
byddaf weithiau yn methu a... ibidem
‘I sometimes fail to...’
Byddaf yn synnu yn aml pa sut y... ditto 217
‘I often marvel how . . .’;
mawr fydd y difrod... ar fy llyfrau bob tro y symudaf
ditto 194 ‘great is the havoc [wrought] on my books every time I migrate’.
As the tense expresses what is customary or normal, it is used in making
general statements or laying down rules;
lle ni bo dysc ny bydd dawn R.P. 1029
{= Red Book Poetry = The Poetry in the Red Book of
Hergest, editor J. Gwenogvryn Evans, Llanbedrog 1911 (issued 1921).
Reference to columns.}
‘where there is no learning there is no wit’;
Rhy debyg a vydd pan vo yr orffwysva... P.IL. xciii
{= Pump Llyfr Kerddwriaeth by Simwnt Vychan
1567, Jesus College Manuscript 9; reference to the ediiton printed from a late
copy in Dosparth Edeyrn Davod Aur... Llandovery 1856, pp. xlii-cxxviii.}
‘[The fault] “too like” occurs when the pause is...’
Also after o, os ‘if’, oni ‘if not’ in the protasis of such
statements; as,
Ac o bydd y vath beth yn ... ibidem
‘But if such a thing happeins in . . .’;
ni ellir prydydd o’r doethaf... oni bydd wrth natur yn dueddol
i hynny Gr.O. 276 {= Goronwy Owen (Anglesey),
1723-69; reference to Gwaith y Parch. Goronwy Owen..., Llanrwst 1860.}
‘a poet cannot be [made] out of the wisest ... unless he is by nature inclined
to that’
Os bydd i ddyn synnwyr cyffredin... ibidem
‘if a man has common sense . . .’
Note the difference between os bydd gan ddyn arian,
‘if a man has money’, and
os oes gennych arian
‘if you have money [now]’.
(But pan, lle, etc. take the present subjunctive bo as above.)
(3) But the more common use of the second present is as a future; thus,
mi a fyddaf iddo ef yn Dduw, ac yntau a fydd i
minnau yn fab Datguddiad xxi 7;
{= and I will be his God, and he shall be my son.
Revelation 21:7}
Ac ni bydd nos yno ditto xxii 5
{= Revelation 22:5 And there shall be no night there;
Revelation 22:5}
Ond cofia’r farn a fydd E.F. 350
{= Eben Fardd = Ebenezer Thomas (South
Caernarvonshire), 1802-63; reference to Gweithiau Barddonol Eben Fardd
[Bangor, no date].}
‘but remember the judgement that will be’.
::310.
(i) The imperfect oeddwn is usually
imperfect in meaning, expressing contemporaneousness with the point of time
spoken of in the past, see Section ::269 (1)
Yr oeddwn y pryd hynny yn glarc T. ii 205
{= Talhaiarn = John Jones, Llanfair Talhaearn,
1810-69; reference to Gwaith Talhaiarn;
i, London 1853; ii, London 1862.}
‘I was at that time a clerk’;
A’r ddaear oedd afluniaidd a gwag, a thywyllwch oedd
ar wyneb y dyfnder Genesis i 2.
{= And the earth was without form, and void; and
darkness was upon the face of the deep. Genesis 1:2}
(2) The second imperfect byddwn
is the past of the iterative and consuetudinal second present, and denotes ‘I
used to be’, etc.; thus,
ac yno byddwn sicr o gael fy
llawn hwde Gr.O. 183
{= Goronwy Owen (Anglesey), 1723-69; reference to
Gwaith y Parch. Goronwy Owen..., Llanrwst
1860. }
‘and there I used to be certain of getting my full share’ (literally ‘my full
"take [this]”’).
Synnodd ar bawb weled cyiinifer ... ac
anamled y byddeint yn dyfod yn
dyfod B.CW. 122
{= Gweledigaethau
y Bardd Cwsc [by Ellis Wynne], 1703; reprint, editor J. Morris Jones,
Bangor 1898.}
‘Everybody was surprised to see so many ... considering in what small numbers
they usually came’.
Wyddoch chwi sut y byddai e’n golchi ei grys? T. i 21
{= Talhaiarn = John Jones, Llanfair Talhaearn,
1810-69; reference to Gwaith Talhaiarn;
i, London 1853; ii, London 1862.}
‘Do you know how he used to wash his shirt?’
A dyna fel y byddent yn mynd ymlaen ditto 27
‘And that is how they used to go on’.
The verb ‘to be’ has thus a distinct form to express the second meaning of. the
imperfect indicative, Section ::269 (2).
(3) The second imperfect also expresses the future from a past point of view.
This generally occurs in a clause dependent on a sentence in which the verb is
imperfect or aorist; thus
dywed y bydd ‘he says that be will
be’ projected into the past becomes
dywedtai y byddai Gr.O. 182
´= Goronwy Owen (Anglesey), 1723-69; reference to Gwaith y Parch. Goronwy Owen..., Llanrwst 1860.}
‘he said that he would be’.
Trwy fydd y bendithiodd Isaac Jacob ac
Esau am betliau a fyddent Hebreaid xi 20
{ = Hebrews 11:20 By faith Isaac
blessed Jacob and Esau concerning things to come.}
‘By faith Isaac blessed Jacob and Esau concerning things that were to be’.
(4) But the most common use of the tense is to express what ‘would’ or ‘could
be’ in the contingency assumed, see Section ::269 (4); as
da fyddai iddo pe crogid maen melin am ei wddf
Matthew xviii 6,
{= Matthew 18:6 it were better for him that a
millstone were hanged about his neck}
cf. Luc xvii 2;
{ Gwell fyddai
iddo pe rhoddid maen melin o amglych ei wddf ef, a’i daflu i’r môr, nag iddo
rwystro un o’r rhai bychain hyn
Luke 17:2 It were better for him that a millstone were hanged about his neck,
and he cast into the sea, than that he should offend one of these little ones.};
without an expressed protasis,
Bellach, e fyddai gymwys rhoi i chwi gyfrif... Gr.O. 199
{= Goronwy Owen (Anglesey), 1723-69; reference to Gwaith y Parch. Goronwy Owen...,
Llanrwst 1860.}
‘To proceed, it would be fitting [that I should] give you an account. ..’.
The first imperfect oeddwn is more
rarely used thus:
gwell oedd iddo osod maen melin Marc
ix 42
{= it is
better for him that a millstone were hanged about his neck}
see Section ::269 .
::311.
(1) The perfect bûm is often perfect
in meaning, but is also used in an aorist sense.
(2) It is perfect with gynt ‘formerly’, llawer gwaitli, erioed, etc., expressed
or implied.
Y llwybrau gynt lle bu’r gân
Yw lleoedd y ddylluan. -I.B.H. ieu. 51.
{= Ieuan Brydydd Hir ieuaf, properly Ieuan Fardd (cf.
p.155 below) = Evan Evans (Cardiganshire) 1731-89; reference to Gwaith y Parchedig Evan Evans (Ieuan Brydydd
Hir), editor D. Silvan Evans, Caernarfon 1876. }
‘The paths where formerly song has been are the haunts of the owl.’
Llawer gwaith y bûm yn meddwl P.T. 59
{= Penillion
Telyn, editor W. Jenkyn Thomas, Caernarfon, 1894.}
‘Many a time have I been thinking’.
Mi fûm lawer gwaith ymhellach,
Ond nid erioed ti chalon drymach.- P.T. 55.
{= Penillion
Telyn, editor W. Jenkyn Thomas, Caernarfon, 1894.}
‘I have many a time been further away, but never with a heavier heart.’
Ni bu ferch erioed gyn laned c. i. 285
{= Ceinion
Llenyddiaeth Gymreig.... editor Owen Jones; 2 vols., London 1876.}
‘There never has been a maid so fair’.
(3) It is aorist in meaning when the extension denotes a point or period of
time, and generally when it means ‘came to pass; happened; became’.
Fe fu rhyw helynt rhyfedd iawn
Yn Rhos-y-mawn nos Glanmai. - LL.M. 102.
{= Lloches
Mwyneidd-dra... gan Absalom Roberts; Llanrwst 1845. Contains collection of
penillion telyn {= verses for singing accompanied by the harp}.}
‘There was a very strange affair at Rhos-y-mawn on May Eve.’
A’r hwyr a fu, a’r bore a fu, y dydd cyntaf Genesis i 5
{= And the evening and the morning were the first day.}
Bûm yngwasanaeth Mr Penson dair blynedd ar ddeg T. ii 205
{= Talhaiarn = John Jones, Llanfair Talhaearn,
1810-69; reference to Gwaith Talhaiarn; i,
London 1853; ii, London 1862.}
‘I was in Mr. P.’s service 13 years.’
A Seth a fu fyw wedi iddo genhedlu Enos saith mlynedd ac
wyth gan mlynedd Genesis v 7;
{= Genesis 5:7 And Seth lived after he begat Enos
eight hundred and seven years}
Ac efe a fu farw ditto 8
{= and he died}
A bu xi 2.
{= A bu, a hwy
yn ymdaith o’r dwyrain, gael ohonynt wastadedd yn nhir Sinar; ac yno y trigasant.
Genesis 11:2
And it came to pass, as they journeyed from the east, that they found a plain
in the land of Shinar; and they dwelt there.}
Here it is made to serve for the narrative tense for want of an aorist form.
::312. The pluperfect buaswn
is sometimes pluperfect in meaning, ‘had been,’ as gw^r a fasei’n alderman
B.CW. 15
{= The Black Book of Carmarthen, end of 12th century; editor J. Gwenogvryn Evans, Pwllheli
1906.}
‘a man who bad been an alderman’;
but generally it expresses ‘would have been’ etc. as
peth a fasei can haws ei gael gartref ditto 13
‘what would have been a hundred times easier to get at home’. See Section ::271.
::313. The
present and imperfect subjunctive and the imperative are used like those of
other verbs, Section ::Section ::272-274
Compounds of the Verb ‘To Be’.
::314. (1) The verbs
canfyddaf ‘I perceive’,
darfyddaf ‘I perish’,
hanfyddaf ‘I am descended (from)’,
gorfyddaf ar ‘I conquer’,
cyfarfyddaf â ‘I meet’ are conjugated
with the b- forms of the verb ‘to
be’.
Thus the Modern forms of canfyddaf
are as follows
:
INDICATIVE, present: canfyddaf, canfyddi,
cenfydd; canfyddwn, canfyddwch, canfyddant; canfyddir.
Imperfect: canfyddwn, canfyddit,
canfyddai; canfyddem, canfyddech, canfyddynt; canfyddid.
Perfect: canfûm, canfuost, cánfu;
canfûom, canfûoch, canfûant; canfûwyd.
Pluperfect: canfuáswn, etc.
SUBJUNCTIVE, present: canfwyf, cénffych,
cánffo; cánffom, cánffoch, cánffont; cánffer, canfydder; also canfyddwyf, etc. throughout.
Imperfect.: cánffwn, cánffit, cánffai;
cánffem, cánffech, cénffynt; cénffid; also as imperfect indicative.
IMPERATIVE present: singular 2. cénfydd,
3. canfydded; plural canfyddwn,
canfyddwch, canfyddent; impersonal canfydder.
VFRBAL Noun: canfod.
(2) The others are conjugated similarly, except that the o of gorfyddaf is not
affected to e in the disyllabic forms
gorfydd, gorffych, etc.
RHANNAU HEB
EU HYCHWANEGU ETO ::315 ::316
::317 ::318 ::319
::320 ::321 ::322
::323 ::324 ::325
::326 ::327 ::328
::329 ::330 ::331
::332 ::333 ::334
::335 ::336
::337. The verb genir ‘is
born’ is used in the impersonal only; thus
indicative present genir,
imperfect genid,
aorist ganed (late ganwyd also),
pluperfect ganasid;
subjunctive present ganer;
verb-noun geni.
Middle Welsh has other pluperfect forms, ganadoedd, ganydoedd
‘had
been born’.
The verb takes accusative pronouns, Section ::275 (2), as
Er mwyn hyn y’m ganed Ioan xviii 37;
{= To this
end was I born, John 18:37}
and the verb-noun takes nouns and pronouns in the
objective genitive, as
cyn dy eni ‘before the bearing of thee’, i.e. before thy birth.
RHANNAU HEB EU HYCHWANEGU ETO Section ::338 Section ::339 Section ::340 Section ::341 Section ::342 Section ::343 Section ::344 Section ::345 Section ::346 Section ::347
::348. A number of verb-nouns have no verbs. They are used exactly
like other verb-nouns in periphrastic conjugation; thus though pysgotëais
is not a possible form the idea may be expressed by saying bûm yn pysgota
‘I have been fishing’
or darfu im bysgota ‘I fished’. These verb-nouns are:
(1) byw ‘to live’: marw ‘to die’. These words are also
adjectives, as dyn byw ‘a living man’, dyn marw ‘a dead man’;
used participially Section ::350, Note.
They are also ordinary nouns, as byw da ‘good living’, marw mawr
‘great mortality’.
(2) Many verb-nouns formed from nouns and adjectives with the suffix -(h)a
Section ::127; as
cardota ‘to beg’,
pysgota ‘to fish’,
blota ‘to beg meal’ (blawd ‘meal’),
neua ‘to go nutting’,
lloffa ‘to glean’,
adara ‘to go bird-catching’, etc.
(3) caentach {= to complain, to grumble}, etc., Section ::345 (3);
germain {= to shout, to yell }, etc., ditto. (6)
myngial {= to mumble, to mutter}, ditto. (15).
(4) ymlâdd ‘to tire one-self’, as yr wyf wedi ymlàdd.
The verb ymladdaf belongs only to ýmladd ‘to fight’, Section
::74 (1).
RHANNAU HEB EU HYCHWANEGU ETO Section ::349 Section ::350 Section ::351 Section ::352
PREPOSITIONS.
CONJUGATED
PREPOSITIONS.
::353. Personal pronouns following prepositions as their objects
came early to be joined to them in the Keltic languages, and ultimately became
mere inflexions. The
conjugation so formed was very similar in Welsh to that of the verb and was
influenced by it in its later development.
RHANNAU HEB
EU HYCHWANEGU ETO ::354 ::355
::356 ::357 ::358
::359 ::360 ::361
::362 ::363 ::364
::365 ::366 ::367
::368 ::369
::370. To the third conjugation belong gan ‘with, by’ and wrth
‘over against’. These prepositions have no adverbial form.
RHANNAU HEB
EU HYCHWANEGU ETO ::372 ::373
::374 ::375 ::376
::377 ::378 ::379
::380 ::381
Compound Prepositions..
::382. Compound
prepositions are expressions in which the last element is a preposition. They
fall into two classes :
(1) preposition + preposition;
(2) noun, adverb or pronoun + preposition.
::383.
(1) oddi + preposition;
oddi am ‘from about’,
oddi ar ‘from on’,
oddi wrth or oddiẃrth ‘from by, from (a person)’,
oddíeithr, Section ::375 (4),
oddi gan = Medieval y gan
Section ::371 (3).
In Middle Welsh y is mostly found, oddi having spread in Modern
Welsh.
(2) er ys, er’s Section ::375 (5);
gorúwch, gorís {gor IIS} (more
rarely góruwch Gr.O. 34) {= Goronwy Owen
(Anglesey), 1723-69; reference to Gwaith y Parch. Goronwy Owen...,
Llanrwst 1860.}
(3) yn anad ‘before, rather than’;
yn anad neb D.G. 35, 107
{= Dafydd ap Gwilym (North Cardiganshire.), floruit
1350-80; reference to Barddoniaeth Dafydd ab Gwilym.... Llundain, 1789;
bracketed numbers refer to Cywyddau Dafydd ap Gwilym a’i Gyfoeswyr . . .,
editor Ifor Williams a T. Roberts, Bangor 1914; thus D.G. 70 (66) means that
the words will be found in p. 70 of the former, and p. 66 of the latter.}
Megis y rhyfeddod llawer wrthyt (mor llygredig oedd ei wedd yn anad neb, a’i
bryd yn anad meibion dynion) Esaia lii 14
{As many were
astonied at thee; his visage was so marred more than any man, and his form more
than the sons of men Isaiah 52:14}
In Middle Welsh annat, generally without yn.
(4) The combinations a chan ‘having’, heb gan ‘without having’
are not compound prepositions, because each preposition has its own object;
thus, in heb ganddynt fugail Matt. ix 36 the object of heb is fugail,
and the object of gan is the suffix ‘them’, so that the phrase may take
the form heb fugail ganddynt.
{A phan
welodd efe y torfeydd, efe a dosturiodd wrthynt, am eu bod wedi blino, a’u
gwasgaru, fel defaid heb ganddynt fugail
Sant Mathew 9:36; But when he saw the multitudes, he was moved with compassion
on them, because they fainted, and were scattered abroad, as sheep having no
shepherd. Matthew 9:36}
Similarly cyn i {before}, wedi i
{after}, er i {though},
etc. before verb-nouns; the first preposiiton governs the verb-noun and i
governs the agent, e.g. wedi i mi ddyfod {‘after
to me coming’ = after I came}.
RHANNAU HEB EU HYCHWANEGU ETO::384 ::385
::386.
(1) Na may stand alone as a negative adverb in answering a question
introduced by a or ai; but it is generally followed by a negative
particle with a verb, or noun, pronoun, etc.; as Na, nid hynny ‘No, not
that’.
(2) A question introduced by a is answered by Na, Nac with
the verb, A ddaw ef? Na ddaw ‘Will he come? No.’
But if the verb is in the aorist (or perfect) tense the answer is Ná ddo
{ [naa] }for all verbs; this is sometimes
written Naddo, but wrongly, for the a is long, not medium as in a
penult; thus A aeth ef? Na ddo ‘Did he go? No.’
(3) A question introduced by ai is answered in the negative by nág e
{ [naag] } (often wrongly written nage)
‘not so’, as Ai tydi a’i gwnaeth? Nág e ‘Is it thou that didst it? No.’
More rarely by repeating the adjective: Ai da gennyf hynny? Na dda.
‘Dost thou like that? No.’
387.
A negative particle is often supplemented by ddim Section ::266,
(6), (7).
RHANNAU HEB
EU HYCHWANEGU ETO ::388 ::389
::390 ::391 ::392
::393 ::394 ::395
::396 ::397 ::398
::399 ::400
::401. In the following s the Welsh conjunctions
are classified according to meaning. Some conjunctions, like a ‘and’, may
connect two nouns, adjectives, adverbs, etc., or two sentences; others, like pan
‘when’, can only indicate the relation of a dependent to the principal
sentence. The latter are preverbs; only negative particles and infixed pronouns
can separate them from the verb of the clause.
RHANNAU HEB EU HYCHWANEGU ETO ::402 ::403 ::404 ::405 ::406 ::407
::408. Concessive:
(1) cyd [radical] ‘though’;
Cyd byddai nifer... Rhufeniaid ix 27;
{Hefyd y mae Eseias yn llefain am yr Israel, Cyd
byddai nifer meibion Israel fel tywod y môr, gweddill a achubir
Esaias also crieth concerning Israel,
Though the number of the children of Israel be as the sand of the sea, a
remnant shall be saved: Romans 9:27}
Cyd byddai hirfaith Gr.O. 116
{= Goronwy Owen (Anglesey), 1723-69; reference to Gwaith
y Parch. Goronwy Owen..., Llanrwst 1860.}
‘Though it would be long’.
(2) er y {although}, er na {although... not}Section ::412 (4).
::409. Comparative:
(1) cyn ‘as’ before the equative;
cyn wynned â’r eira ‘as white as snow’.
It softens initials, except ll, rh, as
cyn llonned â’r gog ‘as merry as the cuckoo’.
(2) â [spirant mutation], ag ‘as’ after the equative. This is the
same
as a, ag ‘with’ Section ::374 (i). It is often found before pe
{if} and pan {when}:
â phe ‘as if’, â phan ‘as when’.
(3) na [spirant mutation], nag ‘than’ after the comparative,
earlier no, nog.
Na phe ‘than if’, na phan ‘than when’, na chynt ‘than
previously’.
::410. Illative: yntau,
ynteu ‘then, in that case’;
pwy ynteu? ‘who, then?’
It is usually misspelt ynte in the late period. It always comes after
the first word or words in the sentence.
RHANNAU HEB
EU HYCHWANEGU ETO ::411 ::412
::413 ::414 ::415
::416 ::417 ::418
ABBREVIATIONS:
AUTHORS AND BOOKS
Capital initials represent authors;
small capital initials represent books. {Note:
here we use italics instead of small capitals}. The reference is to
pages except where otherwise stated below. A number immediately following an
author’s name refers to the page of the edition of his works indicated in the
list; where the quotation is taken from an anthology or other printed book, the
reference is given after the author’s initials; thus T.A. G. 035 means
that the couplet (p.12 below) is by Tudur Aled and appears in Gorchestion
Beirdd Cymru 1773, Page 235. A bracketed reference, such as D.N. (F.N.
90) means that the words are quoted from a manuscript, and appear less
correctly in the anthology referred to. But bracketed figures after D.G. refer
to the smaller but more authentic and better edited collection of cywyddau
in D.G.G.; see D. G. below.
The ordinary abbreviations are used in referring to the Welsh Bible. (Where the
reading given differs from that of modern editions it is to be taken as that of
the Authorised edition of 1620.)
No references are given to MSS.
A.L. i. ·:· Ancient Laws and Institutes
of Wales.... vol. i. 1841.
B.A. ·:· The Book of Aneirin, 13th
century; editor J. Gwenogvryn Evans, Pwllheli 1908.
B.B. ·:· The Black Book of Carmarthen,
end of 12th century; editor J. Gwenogvryn Evans, Pwllheli 1906.
B. Br. ·:· Bedo Brwynllys (Breconshire), circa 1460.
B.CW. ·:· Gweledigaethau y Bardd Cwsc
[by Ellis Wynne], 1703; reprint, editor J. Morris Jones, Bangor 1898.
BL. ·:· Blodeu-gerdd Cymry...; editor
D. Jones, Amwythig (Shrewsbury), 1779.
BR. ·:· Y Brython; 5 vols., Tremadoc
1858-63.
B.T. ·:· The Book of Taliesin, 13th
century, editor J. Gwenogvryn Evans, Pwllheli 1905 (issued 1916).
c. i and c. ii ·:· Ceinion Llenyddiaeth
Gymreig.... editor Owen Jones; 2 vols., London 1876.
C.C. ·:· The Cefn Coch MSS. . . .,
editor J. Fisher; Liverpool 1899.
C.F. ·:· Cymru Fu . . . . [editor I.
Foulkes, 1862-4]; second edition, Wrexham, no date.
C.LL. ·:· Cynfeirdd Lleyn... editor
J. Jones (Myrddin Fardd); Pwllheli 1905.
C.M. ·:· Ystorya de Carolo Magno,
from the Red Book of Hergest, editor Thomas Powell; Cymmrodorion Society 1883.
Ceiriog C.G. ·:· Cant o Ganeuon, gan
John Ceiriog Hughes, Wrexham [1863]
D. ·:· Dr. John Davies, of Mallwyd; reference to Antiquae Lingvae Britannicae... Rudimenta, London 1621.
D. ·:· quoted in Dr. Davies’s grammar, as above.
D.E. ·:· Dafydd ab Edmwnd (Flintshire), floruit 1450-80; reference to Gwaith Dafydd ab Edmwnd, editor T.
Roberts, Bangor 1914.
D.FF. ·:· Deffyniad Ffydd Eglwys Loegr,
by Maurice Kyffin, 1595; reprint, editor W. P. Williams, Bangor 1908.
D.G. ·:· Dafydd ap Gwilym (North Cardiganshire.), floruit 1350-80; reference to
Barddoniaeth Dafydd ab Gwilym....
Llundain, 1789; bracketed numbers refer to Cywyddau
Dafydd ap Gwilym a’i Gyfoeswyr . . ., editor Ifor Williams a T. Roberts,
Bangor 1914; thus D.G. 70 (66) means that the words will be found in p. 70 of
the former, and p. 66 of the latter.
D.G. ·:· quoted from Barddoniaeth Dafydd ap Gwilym but not by
Dafydd ap Gwilym; these quotations are either from poems printed as the work of
others, e.g. G.Gr. { Gruffydd Gryg (Anglesey), circa
1370.}; or from old poems wrongly attributed to Dafydd ap Gwilym; in
these cases the author’s name is given; where no author is mentioned the lines
are from late imitations by Iolo Morganwg.
D.G.G. ·:· Cywyddau Dafydd ap Gwilym a’i
Gyfoeswyr as above; quotations from poems by the other authors (Cyfoeswyr). References to Dafydd’s poems
are given thus: D.G. (66), see above.
D.H. ·:· Dewi Havhesp = David Roberts, Llandderfel, 1831-84; reference to Oriau’r Awen, 2nd edition, Bala 1897.
D.I. ·:· Dafydd Ionawr = David Richards, Dolgelley, 1751-1827; reference to Gwaith Dafydd Ionawr, editor Morris
Williams, Dolgellau 1851.
D.I.D. ·:· Deio ab leuan Du (Cardiganshire), circa 1480.
D.LL. ·:· Dafydd Llwyd ap Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, circa 1480.
D.N. ·:· Dafydd Nanmor (Beddgelert), circa 1460.
D.P.O. ·:· Drych y Prif Oesoedd. . by
Theophilus Evans (Breconshire), 1740; reprint, editor S. J. Evans, Bangor 1902.
Dr.M. ·:· Dr. William Morgan (Caernarvonshire), 1541-1604; translator of the
Bible, 1588.
D.T. ·:· Diddanwch Teuluaidd: neu Waith
Beirdd Môn 2nd edition Caernarfon 1817
D.W. ·:· Dewi Wyn o Eifion = Dafydd Owen (Llanystumdwy), 1784- 1841; reference
to Blodau Arfon, Caerlleon, 1842.
E.F. ·:· Eben Fardd = Ebenezer Thomas (South Caernarvonshire), 1802-63;
reference to Gweithiau Barddonol Eben
Fardd [Bangor, no date].
E.P. ·:· Edmwnd Prys, Archdeacon of Merioneth, 1541-1623; reference to Edmwnd Prys ... gan T. R. Roberts
(Asaph), Caernarfon 1899. PS. refers to his metrical version of the Psalms.
F. ·:· Flores Poetarum Britannivorum
Collected by J. D. [Dr. John Davies]. Mwythig (Shrewsbury) 1710.
F.N. ·:· Y Flodeugerdd Newydd...,
editor W. J. Gruffydd; Cardiff 1909.
G. ·:· Gorchestion Beirdd Cymru...,
editor Rhys Jones. Amwythig (Shrewsbury) 1773.
G.C. ·:· The History of Gruffydd ap
Cynan..., [13th century] editor Arthur Jones. Manchester 1910.
G. Gl. ·:· Guto’r Glyn (Denbighshire.), floruit 1450-80.
G.Gr. ·:· Gruffydd Gryg (Anglesey), circa 1370.
G.I.H. ·:· Gwilym ab Ieuan Hen, circa 1460.
G.J. ·:· Griffith Jones, Rector of Llanddowror, 1684-1761; reference to Hyfforddiad Gynnwys i Wybodaeth jachusol o
Egwyddorjon a Dyledswyddau Crefydd...., London 1749 (remarkable as an
attempt to restore the correct representation of vowels, e.g. u miswritten y,. etc.).
Gm.P. ·:· Gwilym Peris = William Williams, 1769-1847; reference to Awengerdd Peris Llanrwst [1813].
G. Ph. ·:· Gruffudd Phylip, son of Siôn Phylip {Ardudwy,
Merionethshire}, circa 1640.
G.R. ·:· Dr. Griffith Roberts; reference to Dosparth
Byrr ar y rhann gyntaf i ramadeg cymraeg [Milan] 1567; reprint, Paris
1870-83 as supplement to Revue Celtique
under the title A Welsh Grammar and other
Tracts.
G. R. ·:· quoted from Dr..Griffith
Robert’s Grammar, as above.
Gr.O. ·:· Goronwy Owen (Anglesey), 1723-69; reference to Gwaith y Parch. Goronwy Owen..., Llanrwst 1860.
G.T. ·:· Gwilym Tew (Glamorganshire), circa 1450
Gu.P. ·:· Gutyn Peris = Griffith Williams 1769-1838; reference to Ffrwyth Awen, Trefriw 1816.
H.A. ·:· Huw Arwystl, circa 1550.
H.C.LL. ·:· Huw (or Hywel) Cae Llwyd (Breconshire), circa 1480.
H.H. ·:· Hugh Hughes, y Bardd Coch (Anglesey), died 1770.
H.M. ·:· Hugh Maurice (Denbighshire), 1622 -1709; reference to Eos Ceiriog .... 2 volumes, Wrexham
1823.
H.S. ·:· Hywel Swrdwal (Montgomeryshire), circa 1450; reference to Gwaith Barddonol Hywel Swrdwal a’i fab Ieuan,
editor J. C. Morrice, Bangor 1908.
I.B.H. ·:· Ieuan Brydydd Hir (Merionethshire), circa 1450.
I. B.H. ieu. ·:· Ieuan Brydydd Hir ieuaf, properly Ieuan Fardd (cf. p.155
below) = Evan Evans (Cardiganshire) 1731-89; reference to Gwaith y Parchedig Evan Evans (Ieuan Brydydd Hir), editor D. Silvan
Evans, Caernarfon 1876.
I.D. ·:· Ieuan Deulwyn (Carmarthenshire), floruit 1460-80; refrence to Gwaith Ieuan Deulwyn editor Ifor
Williams, Bangor 1909.
I. F. ·:· Iorwerth Fynglwyd (Glam.), circa 1490.
I.G. ·:· Iolo Goch (Denbighshire), floruit 1370-1405; reference to Gweithiau Iolo Goch ... editor Charles
Ashton, Cymmrodorion Society 1896.
I.G.G. ·:· Ieuan Glan Geirionydd = Evan Evans (Trefriw), 1795-1855; reference
to to Geirionydd, editor W. J.
Roberts; Rhuthyn [1862].
I.H.S. ·:· Ieuan ap Hywel Swrdwal, circa 1470; reference as for H.S., q.v.
(=Hywel Swrdwal (Montgomeryshire), circa 1450; reference to Gwaith Barddonol Hywel Swrdwal a’i fab Ieuan,
editor J. C. Morrice, Bangor 1908.)
I. MSS. ·:· Iolo Manuscripts ..... Llandovery 1840.
L.G.C. ·:· Lewis Glyn Cothi, floruit 1440-80; reference to Gwaith Lewis Glyn Cothi .... Oxford 1837.
L.M. ·:· Lewis Morris, Llywelyn Ddu o Fôn, 1701-65.
L.Men. ·:· Lewis Menai, circa 1570.
LL. ·:· Llawdden (Machynlleth), circa 1460.
LL.A. ·:· Llyfr yr Ancr, 1346 = The
Elucidatrium and other tracts in Welsh...., editor J. Morris Jones and J.
Rhys, Oxford 1894.
LL.G. ·:· Llywelyn Goch Amheurig Hen, circa 1380.
LL.M. ·:· Lloches Mwyneidd-dra... gan
Absalom Roberts; Llanrwst 1845. Contains collection of penillion telyn {= verses for singing accompanied by the harp}.
M.A. i ·:· The Myvyrian Archaiology of
Wales... vol. i; London 1801. Collection of Medieval poetry
M.E. ·:· Mil o Englynion = Pigion
Englynion fy Ngwlad Vol. i, 2nd edition., Liverpool 1882.
M.LL. ·:· Morgan Llwyd o Wynedd, 1619- 1659; reference to Gweithiau Morgan Llwyd o Wynedd, vol. i, editor T. E. Ellis, Bangor
1899.
M.R. ·:· Maredudd ap Rhys, circa 1440.
N.T. ·:· New Testament.
P.G.G. ·:· Pattrwm y Gwir-Gristion...
Chester 1723; reprint edited by H. Elvet Lewis, Bangor 1908.
P.LL. ·:· Pump Llyfr Kerddwriaeth by Simwnt Vychan 1567, Jesus College
Manuscript 9; reference to the ediiton printed from a late copy in Dosparth Edeyrn Davod Aur... Llandovery
1856, pp. xlii-cxxviii.
P.M. ·:· Llywarch ap Llywelyn, Prydydd y Moch (North Denbighshire); floruit
1160-1220.
P.T. ·:· Penillion Telyn, editor W.
Jenkyn Thomas, Caernarfon, 1894.
R.B.B ·:· Red Book Bruts = The Text of
the Bruts from the Red Book of Hergest, editor J. Rhys and J. Gwenogvryn
Evans, Oxford 1887.
R.G.D. ·:· Robert ab Gwilym Ddu = Robert Williams (Llanystumdwy), 1767-1850;
reference to Gardd Eifion. . . .
Dolgellau 1841.
R.J. ·:· Rhys Jones o’r Blaenau (Merionethshire.) 1713-1801 (editor of Gorchestion Beirdd Cymru..., editor Rhys
Jones. Amwythig (Shrewsbury) 1773); reference to Gwaith Prydyddawl y diweddar Rice Jones o’r Blaenau.... Dolgelleu
1818.
R.M. ·:· Richard Morris (brother of Lewis Morris), 1703-79; editor of Bible
1746, 1752.
R.M. ·:· Red Book Mabinogion = The
Text of the Mabinogion... from the Red Book of Hergest, editor J. Rhys and J. Gwenogvryn Evans, Oxford 1887.
R.P. ·:· Red Book Poetry = The Poetry in the Red Book of Hergest, editor J.
Gwenogvryn Evans, Llanbedrog 1911 (issued 1921). Reference to columns.
S.C. ·:· Siôn Cent (Kentchurch), circa 1420.
S.G. ·:· Y Seint Greal, being vol. i
of Selections from the Hengwrt MSS....
editor Robert Williams; London 1876.
S.Ph. ·:· Siôn Phylip (Ardudwy, Merionethshire), 1543-1620.
S.T. ·:· Siôn Tudur (Wigwer, St. Asaph), died 1602.
T. ·:· Talhaiarn = John Jones, Llanfair Talhaearn, 1810-69; reference to Gwaith Talhaiarn; i, London 1853; ii,
London 1862.
T.A. ·:· Tudur Aled (North Denbighshire.), floruit 1480-1520.
T.P. ·:· Tudur Penllyn (Merionethshire.), circa 1460.
W. LL. ·:· Wiliam Lly^n (?Lly^n; resided in Oswestry), 1535-80; reference to Barddoniaeth Wiliam Lly^n...’ editor J. C.
Morrice, Bangor 1908.
W.M. ·:· The White Book Mabinogion Editor J. Gwenogvryn Evans, Pwllheli
1907 (issued later, preface dated 1909). Reference to columns.
Wms. ·:· William Williams, Pant y Celyn (Carmarthenshire), hymn-writer,
1717-91; reference to Gwaith Prydyddawl .
. . William Williams . . . Caerfyrddin 1811; Wms. refers to Gweithiau Williams Pant-y-celyn editor
N. C. Jones, Vol. i, Treffynnon (Holywell) 1887.
W.S. ·:· Wyllyam Salesbury (Llanrwst), translator of bulk of New Testament
1567.
Y. LL. H. ·:· Yn y llyvyr hwnn y traethir
Gwyddor kymraec... by Sir John Price, 1546; reprint edited by J. H. Davies,
Bangor 1902.
ABBREVIATIONS: TERMS, ETC.
acc. accusative
adj. adjective
adv. adverb
aff. affixed
aor. aorist
cent.century
cf. compare
compos. composite
coin. conjunc-tive, -tion
cpv. comparative
def. definite
demonst. demonstrative
dial. dialect, -al
do. same book or author
E., Eng. English
edn. edition
e.g. for example
eqtv. equative
ex. example
exc. except, -ion
feminine, fem. feminine
foll. followed
Fr. French
gen. genitive
ib. same book and page
id. same meaning
i.e. that is
impers. impersonal
impf. imperfect
impv. imperative
ind. indicative
indef. indefinite
inf. infixed
interj. interjection
interr. interrogative
lang. language
Lat. Latin
l.c. in place cited
lit. literary, -al, -ally
m., mas. masculine
m. (in references) marwnad
Mab. Mabinogion
MI. Medieval
MI.W. Medieval Welsh
Mn. Modern
Mn.W. Modern Welsh
nas. nasal
neg. negative
nom. nominative
N.W. North Wales
obj. object
obl. oblique
p. page
perf. perfect
pers. person, -al
plural plural
plup. pluperfect
pos. positive
pref. prefixed
prep. preposition
pres. present
pron. pronoun
q.v. which see
rad. radical
reduplural reduplicated
rel. relative
sg. singular
spir. spirant
spv. superlative
subj. subjunctive
s.v. under the word
S.W. South Wales
syll. syllable
v.a. verbal adjective
vb. verb
v.n. verbal noun
W. Welsh
wr. written.
Sumbolau: ā ǣ ē ī ō ū ȳ w̄
W̄
/ ˡ ɑ æ ɛ ɪ ɔ ʊ
ə ɑˑ eˑ iˑ oˑ uˑ ɑː æː eː
iː oː uː /
ɥ / ð ɬ ŋ
ʃ ʧ θ ʒ ʤ / aɪ ɔɪ
əɪ ɪʊ aʊ ɛʊ əʊ /
ә ʌ ŵ ŷ ẃ ŵŷ ẃỳ ă ĕ ĭ
ŏ ŭ ẁ Ẁ ẃ ẅ Ẁ £
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