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Studies in Welsh Grammar and Philology.
Samuel J. Evans. The Educational Publishing Company Ltd. Cardiff.1909.

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Beth sy’n newydd yn y wefan hon?

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STUDIES IN
WELSH GRAMMAR
AND PHILOLOGY.
S.J. EVANS, M.A.

 
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egad

 
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STUDIES
WELSH GRAMMAR
AND
PHILOLOGY

 
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STUDIES
IN
WELSH GRAMMAR
AND
PHILOLOGY
SAMUEL J. EVANS, M.A. (I-ONO.)
RVAo MASTER OF
TITE COUNTY SCHOO% LLANGEFXI
AUTHOR or OF
LATIN WELSH,"
"STUDIES ETC
EDrr-OR OF " CHAUCER's TALE. •
THE EDUCATIONAL VUBLISHING CO. LTD.
CARDIFF

PREFACE

 
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PREFACE

IN the following pages an attempt is made to throw light upon some of the more salient features in the history of the Welsh language.

No claim is made to completeness of detail, and not every problem that confronts the student in the domain of Welsh Grammar and Philology has been here discussed. Still, the field covered is a wide one, and many of the more patent and interesting facts of the language have been carefully analysed.

The book is of necessity largely historical. In no other way is it possible to bring out the true significance of forms and constructions, phonetic growth and decay, the ever-present operations of analogy, foreign influences, the effect of dialectal peculiarities upon literary speech, and the changes consciously and unconsciously introduced by individual writers. Language is a living organism, and to understand its present constitution some knowledge of its lifehistory is essential.

Numerous as the examples and quotations are, few, it is believed, will think them too many. Here

 
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vi  PREFACE

the debt of Welsh students to Dr. Gwenogvryn  Evans and Sir John Rhys for the "Oxford Texts"  will be patent. Without these texts and the publications of the Guild of Graduates the present work  would not have been possible.

It is expected that the book will be found useful  not only by the general reader, but also by the  student who is reading for his Degree or for the  Honours Examination of the Central Welsh Board.  It contains much that would be serviceable even to  those preparing for the Senior Certificate of the same  authority and for Welsh Matriculation. 

J. EVANS.

 
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CONTENTS
Il.
111.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VI".
EX.
X.
Xlll.
THE DEFINITE ARTICLE
GEN t'ER
NUMBER IN NOUNS
DI Ml NVTIVEs
Comparison
N t' ME RALS
PERSONAL PKONouNs
Simple or Normal
Reduplicated or Emphatic
Conjunc
Post-vocalic or Infixed
POSSESSIVES
Simple Possessive Adjective .
Post•vocalic or Infixed
Possessive Pronouns .
INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE
PRONOUNS .
Interrogative
Relative
OTIIER PRONOUNS
Reciprocal
Indefinite
THE VERB
V erb-noun
Finite Verb
Bod, etc.
ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND
Adverts
i t ions
pronominal I"repositions
Conjunctions .
CONJ V NCT10Ns
COMPOSITION AND IDERIVATION
INI'EX
FAO E
as
64
72
75
98
110
110
137
140
145
145
J 49
158
60
166
167
169
199
203
233

 
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REFERENC
B. , or Bardd
Brutieu, or Brats
Edw. Morus
G. G. G., or Edw. S.
MSS.
Lib. Land.
Llyfr Llyvyr) Job
[.lyfr yr
Mab.
The Morris Letters
Sal esbury
Deff. •
Morgan I.lwyd. or Ll. y T. A.
Synnwyr
Vn y I,hyvyr Hwnn
AND ABBREVIATIONS
Professor Morris Jones's Edition (Jarvis and
Foster, Bangorx
The Oxford Edition, by Sir John Rhys and
Dr. Gwenogvryn Evans.
ah G wily"', o
hoad Owen Jones a William O wen—
l.lundain
Cvwyddau Edward Morus edite by Mr.
O. M. Edwards.
Beirdd edited by Cyn-
ddelw (Humphreys, Caernarfon).
Gwirioncdd y Grcfydd by
Edward edited by
Evans (Spurrell,
Goronwy ; Mr. W.
Gruffydd's Edition (Southall, Nea port).
l. FOulkeS'S
Liber Landavensis
Kishop Morgan's Translation (t SBS), edited by
I_ir. G wcnoguyn Evans (Ilenry
Edited by prof. Morris Jor.es.
Llythyrau Goronwy Owen, edited by Prof.
Morris Jones (Isaac Foulkes).
Myvy•rian Of (Gee
and Son,
Oxford Edition, by Sir
John Rhys and Dr. Evans.
Edited by Mr. J. H. Davies, Registrar,
Abcrygtwyth.
V Testament Newydd, Cyfieithiad William
Salesbury. A Caernarfon.
VStOrya de edited by prof.
Powel (Cymmrodorion Society).
De ffynniad Ffydd Eg'.wys Loegr.
Guild of Graduates' Series.
1.1yfr v Tri Aderyn
is sprung from, is derived from.
into, is the parent of.
do.
do.
do.
NOTE.—Modern characters have used in the quotations : s for older f;
for Old Eng. and the 6 and Old English
• From an advance copy of the Text, kindly lent by the Publishers. The work
has since been issued with Introduction and Notes by Mr. W. Prichard
Williams, Bangor.

 
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STUDIES IN WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY

CHAPTER 1

THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

I. — THE rule requiring (1)  ‘y’ before consonants and consonantal ' w’, and (2)  ‘yr’ before vowels and consonantal 'i’ is modern.

Much uncertainty once prevailed regarding the correct form before consonantal 'i’.
In Mediæval Welsh ‘y' is quite as common as  ‘yr’; e.g. —

 
“Nyt af odyma yny gaffwyf vy march am arueu y vwrw y ianghwr racko." — Mab. 219.

“Ac ar hynny y doeth y larll ieuanc . . . ac yna
. . yd erchis yr iarll idaw vynet yr neuad y vwyta." - Mab. 256.

“Lluniwr pob deall uniawn,
A llyfr cyfraith yr iaith iawn."
D. ab G. Marwnad Gr. Grug.

" O gröth pwy y daeth yr iå allan ? "—Llyfr Job 88.
" O eiriau Cymraeg yn y laith Ladin."—D. y P.O.
9 et passim ; but ' yr laith Gymraeg ', top of page 165.

 
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2 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY

2.—POST-VOCALIC OR INFIXED ' 'R,' as the first epithet
irnplies, is used after a vowel, whether the next word
begins in a vowel or a consonant, as—
" Canant i'w Nér o bér berth,
O'r untu, hyd awr anterth."
G. O. Bonedd yr Awen.
Fe'i cl»vai 'r sér disperod,
I-lemain a wnae rhain i'w O. ibid.
The Post-vocalic and the previous word must form
part oi the sarne word-group. The phrase is the unit
of speech, and in no language are the words of the unit
kept separate. Thus in
" O'r stryd fawr hon I ni aethom I i'r nesaf I Ile
mae'r Dywysoges Elw yn rheoli ",
the words between the perpendicular lines are uttered
without a break.
Within each group the consonants are assimilated,
and the vowels are simplified or dropped exactly as
within an individual word. The variations in Latin—
' haud ',
' haut
' hau '
', ' ab', ' abs '—point to
such assimilations. This is the principle underlying
liaison in French; e.g. ' bon écolier ' is pronounced
' bonécolié ', and lierre ' ivy is for 'le ' -+- Latin ' hedera '.
So in English : unless they are separated with conscious
effort, the two words ' at all ' are pronounced as one,
and whilst the final ' r' in ' her ' is inaudible when the
word stands alone, it is quite clearly heard in ' her and
me '.

 
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THE DEFINITE ARTICLE
3
Liaison is a striking characteristic of Welsh, and it
is indicated in writing to a remarkable degree. The
Definite Article ' y ' is merely a shortened form of ' yr '.
AS words in a phrase-unit are run into one another,
they are likely to be wrongly divided, thus yielding new
forms. This is the very reason for the shortened In-
definite Article ' a' in English, and why we say ' a
nickname' for ' an ekename Ned and N ell contain
the final ' n ' of the Old English Possessive Min
Edward, Min Ellen), and the ch in Welsh chwefror is
simply the 's' of ' mis' detached and prefixed to the
Welsh form of Latin Februarius. Ab Einon has be.
come Beynon. Ap Harri > Parry, and the French
l'azur ' is in Welsh ' llasar Medieval ' yd erbyniaf '
is now ' y derbyniaf ', and ' yd aeth ' has passed into
' y daeth '—a form which has ousted Media•val ' doeth ',
deuth ' (v. chapter on the Verb). ' Y Rhyl ' is from
' yr Hyl ', from hel ', hela ', and therefore meaning ' the
Hunting Grounds ', probably of the adjoining Castle of
Rhuddlan. ' The Ralt '
( = yr Allt) is a hill in the
itnmediate neighbourhood of Welshpool ; ' y rhoces ' is
clearly yr hoces from the same root as hogyn; '
rhawg ' and ' yr hawg ' are doublet forms. and it is not
irnpossible that 'y rhai ' is for ' yr hai,' the
strative being a disguised plural form of ' hwn ', ' hon '
hyn '.
The reduction of ' yr ' to ' y ' then, by detachment of
the ' r', is a simple process due to an erroneous division
words.
The fortner use. of the fuller form in -r, even before

 
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4 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY
consonants, is still exemplified in the post-vocalic, for 'o'r ty ' must be from older 'o yr ty', and cannot possibly be accounted for by ' o ' + the modern locution ‘y ty’.

We are therefore not surprised to find that the rule
in Early Welsh was :—
Yr * before all words, the ' y ' being dropped after
a vowel in the same phrase-unit.
Now though speech is uttered in phrases rather than
in individually separated words, what constitutes a
unit is not always clearly marked, nor would any two
readers follow consistently the same divisions in a
given passage. Hence considerable diversity of usage
is found in different writers in the use of Post-
vocalics.
In Mediæval Welsh the ' y ' of ' yr ' was seldom
elided, except after—
y to ; a and, with, Relative Pronoun ; o o', from ; no than.
A casual perusal of that masterpiece of Welsh prose,
" Y Bardd Cwsc," on the other hand, will disclose a
freer use of Post-vocalics than will be found in the work
of any writer of distinction now living.
The desire manifested in all written languages to
preserve the normal form of words accounts in part for
• ' ir' in the Glosses and Llyfr Llandav : e.g.—
bet ir alltudion," the grave of the exiles (or foreigners).
y', • in the Laws: e.g.—
" Ei le yn y lys yrwg yr Osb a'r 965.
" Er escolheygyon .
. cr escrethur 993.

 
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THE DEFINITE ARTICLE  5

the not infrequent use of the full form 'yr’ where we should expect the Post-vocalic: -

“y wrthwynebu yr paganyeit." — Ystorya 2.
“Kerdda yr lheyat.” Yn y Lhyvyr Hwn.
“tua yr nefoedd.” – Llyfr Job 6.
“Drwy yr byd mawr.” D. y P. O. 6.

The examples here adduced show the phonological effect of a vowel-ending word upon the following Article, and the hesitation of the writer to elide the 'y’.

3. – ‘Y', then, is a truncated 'yr’, due to the -r
having been erroneously prefixed to the next word.  Hence in its early history 'Y' would be found only  before words beginning in the consonant r (or n-, or l-,  see below). Then by analogy it came to be used before  words beginning in other consonants.  

A comparison of the Welsh form 'yr' with the  Breton Definite Article ' ar', ‘al', ‘ann’, and the ease  with which these three liquids interchange, suggest an  inquiry whether any traces of doublet forms in -n and  -l occur in Welsh. Further reason for suspecting such  forms exists in the fact that the Old Irish Definite  Article was 'ind' (m.),  ‘inna ' (f.), ‘an' (neut.), and  that its oldest form in Cornish was ‘an'.  In Welsh we  have at least two instances of the form ‘yn’ in 'y  naill' for 'yn aill’ and 'yn awr’, literally the hour.  Probably 'y llall ' is for ‘yl all’, and it is a noteworthy  fact that in Demetian and Gwentian the common

 
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6 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY

locution for y llall ' is 'y nall '. On the other hand, ‘y neilltu' is 'y Ileilltu' in the Laws.*

4.—A comparison of all the above. and especially
the evidence of Old Irish, suggest that the earliest form
XVhen it is added that in
of the consonant was ' n
()ld Irish after certain prepositions to which the Article
is suffixed. an s appears between the two words, as—
forsin < for 'thon + sin (the article),
we mav infer a still older form. ' Sind ', of which the
' sin ' (for sim by assitnilation of m to the ' d is
' silnilis English ' same
Cognate with Latin ' semel ',
and Welsh ' halal '
while the d found in Irish
alone, is cognate with the neuter Definite Article in
Greek.
If this is correct. then our Definite Article is in origin
the first part of a compound, of which the second
element—the presumably original Definite Article—is
completely lost from the Brythonic languages.
in modern Welsh the Article
is indeclinable, the evidence of mutation points to in-
flection in Brythonic :—
1. The Article governs the soft mutation of ' dau '
and dwy ', e.g.—
' Y ddau ddyn ' Y dd',vy wraig ,
• See Wade-Evans' Welsh Medieval Inw" (p. 47), pub.
lished while these sheets were passing through the press.

 
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THE DEFINITE ARTICLE
wllile it is followed by the radical in ' tri ',
• pedwar ', pedair ', and other numerals.
7
' tair
The existence of a dual number in Old Irish leads one
to expect a dual form in Brythonic, which of course
would be used before ' dau • and ' dwy
The form of the dual Article in Irish does not help
us much, but if we turn to Greek, where that number
was still in use in the classical period. we note that in
the Nominative and Accusative it always ended in a
vowel. Similarly the only surviving dual forms in
Latin are ' duo ' and ' ambo both of which end in -o.
A dual Article in Brythonic would thus mutate the
vowel-flanked d of dau and dwy into dd. This same
fact has been used by Sir John Rhys to account for the
soft mutation in ' Yr Eiil ' The Rivals, the name of
certain forked peaks in Soutli-West Carnarvonshire. If
Geifl were plural, the initial would not disappear. for the
Article does not mutate the initial consonant of a
plural noun. Hence he inferred that here we have the
clual, and the once vowel-ending dual Article accounts
for the mutation (cf. Number in Nouns).
2. The Feminine Singular of the Article once ended
in a vowel, hence its governing the soft mutation ;
e.g.—
V wraig (from gwraig) y dduwies (from duwies),
for—we may here observe—mutation goes back to a
time anterior to the shortening of ' yr' into ' y
6.—THE ARTICLE WITH PROPER Novss.—How is if

 
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8 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY
that in Welsh the Definite Article is often used before
such Proper Names as ' Mwythig ' or Amwythig '
Shrewsbury. Bala Bala ?
The history of ' Yr Amwythig ' is interesting and
typical of a class :
1010 Goch does not use the Article in—
" I)wyn blaenffrwyth cwrw Amwythig,
Gwiredydd, bragodydd brig."—G. B. C. 116.
But in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the
initial vowel. being unaccented and therefore indis-
tinctly articulated, was misunderstood and detached.
Hence on the title page of books printed by Thomas
Durston the name is ' V Muythig ', and Goronwy Owen
in his letters writes—
yny Mwythig ' (p. 29), and ' i'r Mwythig ' (p. 11).
Later the A- was restored, but without any suspicion
that the detached ' y ' was anything but the Definite
Article. Hence the modern form ' Yr A mu•ythig '
The same explanation applies to the ' yr ' with
lwerddon, Eidal or Ida]. Yspaen, Amerig, Almaen,
Bermo, etc., and instances of their use with and without
the Article may be adduced :
" Wynt a welynt teir Ilong ar dec yn dyuot o deheu
i werdon
26.
Lloegyr a freinc ar almaen
de Carolo 1.

 
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. ar eidal
. ac yr
THE DEFINITE ARTICLE
" Dyred, wrth ddymuned Mon,
O'r Nordd hyd yn lwerddon."
9
1010 Goch, G. B. C. 119.
" Germania vawr, a'r Almaen .
Lloegr, Ffrainc,
Llydaw, Llychlyn, lwerddon .
yr Ital, a'r Yspaen."
—Salesbury's Introductory Letter to the New Test.
Efe a obeithie y rhuthre lorddonen iw safn el."
Llyfr Job 94. Which has been turned into ' yr Ior-
ddonen ' in the Authorised Version.
" laith Ffydd, M.
" y Fyrnwy " Evernwy).—Llythyrau G. O. , p. 42.
Y (or yr) with Newtown, Bala, Wyddgrug
Mold, Wyddfa Snowdon, is due to the fact that here we
have common nouns used as Proper, for y Wyddfa ' is
the conspicuous spot, and ' y Bala ' is the outlet.
With one or two exceptions the Article is seldom used
with the names of rivers :—
Ar Hafren on the Severn—Mab. 146.
Glan arf deifrdari Glyn Dyfrdwy."
1010 Goch, G.B.C. 117.
yngwaelod Terns—I). y P.O. 34.
So ' Glan Ognven ', not Glan yr Ogwen '.
' Cwtn Rhondda ', not Cwm y Rhondda '.
The insertion of the Definite Article before such
narnes is no doubt in present-day Welsh, and
is due to tlie oi English ; e.g.—

 
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10 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY
Wedi croesi 'r Fenai, daethant wyneb yn wyneb
a gwyr Mön."
7.—The phonetic decay of an unaccented initial
vowel or syllable has fostered the growth of the
Definite Article before other words also ; e.g.—
Y Fenni from (Aber)gavenny.
Y Berch is the usual pronunciation of Abererch.
Y fi for rnyfi (v. Pronouns).
For the use of the Definite Article in Modern Welsh
the reader is referred to the Author's " Elements of
Welsh Grammar," Chap. XI, and the Introduction to
his " Welsh and English Exercises."
8.—Mention should be made here of the occasional
dropping of the Definite Article in Welsh as in English,
in some familiar phrases, as, ' yn ty ' for ' yn y ty '
gartref '); yn dre ' for yn y dref ' (English ' in
town
Instances occur in literature :—
Ai ydyw Israel? Ai gnvas a anwyd yn ty YW
efe? _
" Jererniali ii. 14.
' Daw i ddyn y dyddanwch
nc/ocdd. hoff lysoedd filwch."
G. O. V Maen Gwerlh/awr.
That the Article is understood in " yn ty" is clear
from the absence of the nasal mutation.
Contrast ' yn nhy fy nhad ' yn nhref Aberystwyth '

 
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THE DEFINITE ARTICLE
9.—The use oi the Article with ' lesu ' is in imitation
of the Greek original—a bold and telling violation of
Welsh idiom by the able translators of our Bible—a
violation thorougllly justified by the remarkable grip
and definiteness it gives the name—yr lesu—as com-
pared with the English. Jesus.

 
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CHAPTER 11
GENDER
r.—GENDER is a grammatical distinction in words, which
—in English—-corresponds to the natural difference in
sex. The names of inanimate objects and of qualities
in such a language cannot belong to either the masculine
or the feminine gender. Hence they are said to be of
the 's neuter "
(i.e. neither) gender.
Of course, in English'. names of things may
acquire gender by personification, thus Sun, Fear, Tiber,
Helvellyn are masculine; while Earth, Moon, Night,
Nature, Justice, l.iberty, Wisdom are feminine.
In Welsh, as in French, every noun is either masculine
In the main,* grammatical gender is
or feminine.
based on natural difference of sex in persons and animals,
but in these languages names of all inanimate objects
are similarly treated on the ground of some supposed
analogy between the object named and a living being.
As the operations of analogv are wayward and uncertain,
i.e. are essentially psychological rather than logical,
The names of some animals. birds and fish are epicene.
Thus—cyw. 110. eryr. creyr. dryw, eng, brithyll are masculine,
while neidr. ysguth.n. picvlen. gwennol are feminine, irrespec-
tive of the sex Of the object.

 
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GENDER
13
it is often extremely difficult to ascertain the gender of
any particular noun unless it denotes a person.
In French, Latin, Greek, and other languages where
gender in words is not co-terminous with sex in the
object, it is recognised in two ways :—
(a) by concord between adjectives and nouns, e.g.—
bonus rex, bona regina, bonum regnum ;
(b) by the gender of the substitutory pronoun, e.g.—
qui for rex, quae for regina, quod for regnum.
These two methods together with a third are avail-
able in Welsh, e.g.—
(a) y dyn hwn, y wraig hon ;
(b) y brenin yw e/e, y frenhines yw hi ; and
(c) by the softening or otherwise of the initial con-
sonant of the following adjective or of the noun after
the Article; as—
y dyn, y wraig; dyn da, gwraig dda.
Of course these instruments for indicating gram-
rnatical gender are of little use to a foreigner learning
the language. His difficulty is a previous and more
fundamental one, for a knowledge of the gender of a
word is a condition antecedent to the correct use of the
above methods. For this very reason the following rule
of WILLIAM GAMBOLD* is of little value :—
* v. his Anglo-Welsh Grammar, published in 1724.

 
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14 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY
' Any word beginning with any of the mutable con-
sonants, except ll- and rh-, if upon putting y in appo-
sition before it, its initial consonant does naturally
change into its light sound ; as, melin. y felin ; cascg,
y gaseg ; such words are infallibly of the fetninine
gender; but if the initial Change not thereupon, we
may justly conclude such words to be of the masculine
gender ; as, brethyn, y brethyn ; march, y march."
Nor is the rule here formulated always an infallible "
guide to the gender. Thus final ' -s' may cause a
reversion of the following initial to its radical form, and
' nos da ' or ' nos dawch' is the invariable phrase
throughout Wales, though there is no suspicion of ' nos '
being masculine. Again, the absence of mutation in
the familiar locution ' ewyllys da ' cannot by itself be
taken as a proof that ewyllys ' is masculine (v. below).
Dwyrain ' is masculine, but the initial of the qualifying
adjective is usually softened, as " Dwyrain faith
' -bell
-deg Further, it is a fact, frequently com-
mented on, that ' bach ' (not 'ach) is regularly used in
Gwynedd after a feminine singular; e.g.
Pan oeddwn ddoe mor friw fy mron,
A'rn calon bach mor brudd
Caniadau Prof. Morris Jones, 142.
In " a chred dihoced yw hon "* dihoced is for
ddihoced, owing to the hardening effect of d in chred.
The Anglesey phrase ' y dywydd ' is no proof that
' tywydd ' is feminine, and ' y bennill ' is often used
• G. O., y Cynghoriynt; v. Mr. Gruffydd's note.

 
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GENDER
15
in the same county by people who would still regard
' pennill ' as masculine (v. ' pennill ' below).
Take again that principle of Welsh cynghanedd, in
accordance with which ' g-g ' alliterate with ' c ' (or
' gh '). As ' g-g ' have this sound value, the poets often
take the liberty of emphasizing the fact by writing tliem
as ' g-c '. Thus in Edward Morns's " Cywydd y Paen "
' Draig cynnar' is merely another way of writing
' Draig gynnar ', and the restored ' c ' is not a proof
that drafg is masculine. The lines are—
" Dirugl-was blin, dryglais bloedd,
Draig cynnar y drighinoedd ;
Draig laswerdd yn drwg leisiaw,
Draig yn gloch dyrogan glaw."
2.—NAMES OF INANIMATE OBJECTS AND QUALITIES.
The gender oi these, then, is apt to be uncertain, for
primarily the attribution of gender to this class of
words depended upon the feature or aspect of the object
that Inost deeply impressed itself upon the mind of the
person using the word. Now the subjective view
often varies materially. and while one man will regard
a noun as masculine, because (e.go he sees in it the
attribute of strength, another will be more impressed
by its productivity, and will consequently make the
noun feminine.
(a) In the case of DERIVATIVES the difficulty is not
great, for gender is closely associated with the form of the
termination. Thus in Brvthonic, as in Latin, it was
customary for words in ' -a ' to be of the feminine

 
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16 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY
gender. This -a ' partially assimilated the short i '
and short u ' of a preceding syllable, making them
' e and ' o ' respectively ; hence
Latin manica ' > Welsh maneg '
Brythonic ' tlusa ' > ' tlosa ' > ' tlos '.
The result is that in nouns, as in adjectives, the
vowels ' e ' and ' o ' in the last syllable, whatever their
origin, are taken to imply a lost final ' -a ', and hence
the tendency is to regard such nouns—especially if they
are monosyllables—as feminine. This is why the I -atin
masculine pontem . ' bridge, has passed into the Welsh
feminine pont ' , and the Medi;eval masculine ' chwedl '
has now changed its gender. On the other hand, mono-
syllables, the vowel of which is ' w ' or y ', are apt to
become masculine. The Mediæval feminine llys ',
court, is now masculine.
Similarly gender is associated with the form of the
' -fa' is feminine, wliile -ni' as regularly
suffix :
implies the masculine.
The history of ' porth shows a curious interchange
of genders, for while
porth, m. , a gate, door. is from Latin porta, f. ,
porth, f., a harbour, port, is from Latin portus, m.
The original gender of porth, a gate, door, is seen in—
" O'r Gollborth fawr ar Ddestryw "—Bardd Cwsc 80.
The change of gender in porth (harbour, port) is partly
due to its being used formerly in the colnpounds

 
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GENDER
17
' Ilongborth ' and ' porthfa ', where the feminine
Ilong ' or ' fa ' would help to determine its gender.
(b) In a very large number of words the gender is
not accolnpanied by any special mark, and it therefore
leaves but little itnpression upon the mind ; e.g. in—
dull, clust, ewin, sain, bawd,
there is no termination recognised as such to-day, *
and the internal vowel is not one of those mentioned
above as suggesting a particular gender.
Words of this kind are exceedingly liable to variation
of gender, either in different dialects or at different
periods, or even in individual writers ; e.g.—
' Dull ' is usually masculine, but Henry Perri (d. 1617),
in his " Egluryn Phraethineb ", and some other writers
make it feminine.
Arddull ', on the other hand, is regularly fenlinine,
but not so (e.g.) in the Essays of Dr. Lewis Edwards.
3.—The difficulty of ascertaining dialectal custom has
been brought home to me repeatedly when collecting
material for this chapter. Thus to the inquiry, " What
gender is ' bawd ' in your district ?
I have received
many decided answers that are mutually destructive.
So for dawn, munud, eiliad, tafod, and a host of
others.
• -st in •clust' is in origin a suffix added to the root of

 
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18 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY
 
The lists given below are the result of investigation  extending over a number of years, but they lay no claim  to completeness. I only trust that the present essay will  stimulate careful observation in various parts of Wales,  and that those interested in the work will help to define,  as far as may be, the territorial limits of variations in  gender. Anything like a precise mapping out of the  districts on this basis in a subject of such extreme  fluidity can never be attained.

  
4.—Sometimes the tendency to harmonize gender and
form leads to a change, not of the former. but of the
latter. Thus Latin ' catena ' (f.) gives Welsh ' cadwyn '
but because ' -yn ' looks like a masculine termina-
tion some writers change the word into ' cadwen ', in
spite of the fact that, in the process, ' w ' is made conso-
nantal. ' Awen ' for ' afwyn ', from Latin ' habena ',
is similarly accounted for. And ' cwt ' ,
from English
' cot ' ;
' bwrdd' < Middle English 'bord
and
Twrn a doublet of ' Tom '.
gender of the common name of a
class or species fixes the gender of the name of a Inentber
of that class; e.g.—
I.lun, Monday (cc I.atin feminine lunae) and Gwener
( < Latin Veneris) are masculine because of—
the gender of ' dydd ', and
(b) the fact that the nailiۥs oi the oilier week-days
are* masculine.

 
(delwedd L1278) (tudalen 019)

 
GENDER
19
So the names of the seasons and months of the year
are masculine on the analogy of tymor ' and ' mis '.
The names oi rivers, towns, and countries. and the
letters Of the alphabet are feminine, corresponding to
the gender of ' afon ', ' tref ', ' gwlad ', and ' llythyren '
Hence ' firwd ' is now feminine, in spite of the vowel
Ac yn cnoi dail yr India hyd oni red dwy firwd
felyngoch hyd ei O. Llythyrau 37.
In Mediæval Welsh it was masculine
" tri ffrwt o waet."—Mab. 203.
CO.—THE NEUTER GENDER. — Originally, no doubt,
grammatical gender coincided throughout with natural
sex, and in late Brythonic there were many words that
had not become masculine or feminine, i.e. they were of
the neuter gender. One neuter still remains crystallized
in Welsh—the singular hyn, this ', corresponding to the
masculine ' hwn ' and the feminine ' hon ', as
" Hyn a ddywedaf."
A study of Old Irish suggests the inference that the fol-
lowing, among others, were originally neuter in Welsh :—
bwyd
cenedl
cwrw
cyfoeth
food
Ste/'
kind, tribe
beer
power, wealth
glin
glyn
llam
lied
llyn
knee
dell, glen
lea
width
pond, Pool

 
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20
WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY
chwedl
din
drum
d rws
enw
firwd
gal ar
galr
gawr
story
a fortiftcd place
back, ridge
door
name
stream
grief
word
shout
medd
nus
nef
sudd
tes
tir
mead
month
heaven
heal
land
toraith fruit
house
ty
yd
corn
With the decay of the neuter gender the above
and other neuters passed ' almost without exception
into the masculine, due largely to the similarity of
declension between neuter and masculine nouns. Some
of them have since become feminine, due to form or
analogy; thus in Mediæval Welsh ' nef ' and ' chwedl '
were masculine :
Nef
. ail
" Pa beth yw nef. Tri ryw nef a dywedir .
un ysbrydawl y kredir bot yr egylyonn yn y gyiuann-
hedv. Y trydyd yw nef dyallus yn yr hwnn y mae y
drindawt."—Llyfr yr Ancr 4.
Chwedl :—
" chwedyl grymus."—Ystorya 28.
" Codi'r osier niferoedd
I gid, a chwedl dybryd oedd."—D. ab G. CXLII.
and even later—
" Nid ofna efe rha; chwedl drwg."—Psalm cxii. 7.

 
(delwedd L1280) (tudalen 021)

 
GENDER
Their change to the feminine is due to the fact that
monosyllables containing the vowel -e- are generally of
that gender.
7.—GENDER OF COMPOUNDS
One part of every compound noun is substantival,
the other is attributive. In gender the compound is
usually the same as its substantival element ; e.g.—
Agendor is masculine, like dor < tor, a break, chasm,
though the attributive ' agen ' is feminine.
Cistfaen is feminine, like cist.
(a) In some instances, however, the gender of the
attribute, if it comes first, overrides that of the sub-
stantive :
brawdle f.
brodir f.
coelfaen f.
cornant rn.-f.
< brawd f. judgment, + Ile m.
< bro f. + tir m.
< coel f. 4- maen m.
< cor m. 4- nant f.
' Megis cornant gwyllt."—D y P. O. 133.
Cornant is usually feminine in Demetian and Gwentian.
crogbren generally masculine, but occasionally femi-
nine, < crög f., + pren m.
Masc. : " Y Ffydd 107.
Fem. : " Mae llun y grogbren yn ei wyneb."
" Tri chymmydog goreu yn y byd : celfydd ei law,
dedwydd ei fuchedd, a chybydd ar y grogbren."
T Hoedd Doethineb.

 
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22 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY
cymanfa-gyngor m.-f., < cymanfa f.. 4- cyngor m.
Masc. : " Y Cymanfa-Gyngor diwaetljaf a gynhali-
wyd yn-rhef Tridentum. "—l)eff. Ffydd 15.
Fem. : " Mewn cymanfa-Gyngor gyffredin."
Ibid. 15.
daeargryn m.-f., < daear f. , + cryn, crynnu m.
Masc. : " Ac wele, bu daeargryn mawr."
Matt. xxviii. 2
Fem. : " Ond y canwriad, a'r Thai oedd gyd åg ef yn
gwylied yr lesu, wedi gweled y ddaeargryn
. a ofnasant yn fawr."—Matt. xxvii. 54.
Fem. : " C)herwydd eu bod yn rhoddi eglurdeb . . .
am y S. 85.
like dadl (v. below), but
gwrthddadl usually f. ,
masculine in—
' 'r gwrthddadl S. 81.
hogfaen f., though maen is masculine, on the analogy of
hogalen f.
penglog m.-f., < pen m., -F clog f. , a stone, hard mass :
Masc.: " Ni chawsant o honi onid y penglog."
2 Kings ix. 3.5•
(Altered in later editions into ' y benglog '.)
rhandir f. , though ' tir' is masc. :
Pedeir rantir. "—Laws.
(b) A few compounds differ in gender from that of
either element :—

 
(delwedd L1282) (tudalen 023)

 
GENDER
Canrif is usually feminine, although both ' cant
' rhif ' are masculine :—
Fem. : " Am y ganrif nesaf."—Prayer Book.
It is occasionally used as a masculine
23
and
" Cyfnewidiwyd llawer ar lythyraeth yr Yspaeneg
. . tua chanol y canrif Silvan
Evans' l.lythyraeth yr laith Gymraeg 5.
croglith m. , < crög f. , + Ilith f. ; e.g.—
" Dydd Gwener y croglith."—Prayer Book.
Still ' croglith is feminine as a rule in South Wales
dialects, e.g.—
" Dy' gwener y Groglith."
8.—GENDER AND INTERNAL VOWEL
Some doublets owe their origin to an effort to har-
monize form and gender :—
awen f. , < afwyn, < Latin haböna.
bwrdd rn., bord f. , < Middle English ' bord ', a board,
table; e.g.—
' Hir bord was served most with Whyt and blak,
Milk and broun breed, in which she fond no lak."
Chaucer's Nun's Priest's Tale 23.
cadwen f. , < cadw•yn, < Latin catena.
cnwd m. ; cnod i. in Gwentian, as—
cnod o aeron, a croft o/ /mrries.

 
(delwedd L1283) (tudalen 024)

 
 24 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY
 
cwd m.,cod f.

cwt m. (plural ' cytiau’, as ' Cytiau'r Gwyddelod '),
< English cot.

drws m., dor f.:-

“Yna y daeth Lot attynt hwy allan i'r drws, ac
a gauodd y ddor ar ei ol." — Gen. xix. 6.

9. — GENDER OF DERIVATIVES

The Gender of a Derivative is usually determined by its suffix. Thus nouns in -ad, -iad, -ant, -aint, -deb, -der, -did, -dod, -dra, -edd, -i, -iant, -id, -yd, -ineb, -ioni, -ni, -rwydd, -ych, -ydd, are of the masculine gender; while those in -aeg, -eg, -aeth, -iaeth, -as, -ed,
-es, -fa, -fan are as regularly feminine.

Exceptions, however, occur, and some of the commoner examples are here adduced:
-ach f. Cyfrinach, a secret, is generally feminine, but not so in —

“Cyfrinach Arch Noah iw ddangos i rai."
Ll. y T. A. 159.

-ad, -iad. Verbal nouns, and nouns denoting the result of an action, in -ad, -iad are masculine, as lladdiad, dyfarniad, cadwad.

Adeilad, adeiliad, is uncertain:-

Masc.: “I'm bun wych y chwenychwn,
                Dal y ty a'r 'deiliad hwn."
                D. ab G. CLXXIX.

 
(delwedd L1284) (tudalen 025)

 
GENDER
25
Fem.: " I)yma'r Llew wedi gyrru i mi rai
defnyddiau tu ag at yr adeilad orchestol
G. O. 100.
Galwad is generally feminine, as—
' yr alwad honno.'
Cyfodiad is regularly masculine, but Gor. Owen in
Cywydd y Calan makes it feminine :—
" Er trymed dy gur tramaMT,
Penllad yw'th Gyfodiad fawr."
Eiliad is usually feminine in South Wales (v.
below).
Similarly, nouns in -ad, -iad, denoting the agent,
are masculine, as Ileiddiad, ceidwad.
But cennad, both as an abstract noun and as the
agent, is regularly feminine; e.g.—
" Galwant ef yr Angel neu'r S. 141.
It is masculine in—
" Wele, yr ydwyf fl yn anion fy nghennad 0 flaen
dy wyneb, yr hwn a barottoa dy fiordd o'th flaen."
Matt. xi. 10.
Lleuad (lit. = light-giver, source of light)
is femi-
nine, except dialectally.
-aeth, -iaeth f.
Arnrywiaeth is masculine.
Barddoniaeth is regularly ferninine,
in Llythyrau Gor. Owen, p. 91 :—

 
(delwedd L1285) (tudalen 026)

 
but
not
so
26
WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY
" Onid gwych fyddai cael tipyn ychwaneg O'r
Barddoniaeth yna ? Ni flinwn i byth byth-
oedd arno." (Cf. also p. 97.)
Claddedigaeth, masculine in—
'J Y Claddedigaeth."—Genesis 1. contents; see
also in Mark xiv. 8.
Coffadwriaeth is occasionally masculine ;
" Diolchwch iddo'n hytrach am gadw coffa-
dwriaeth parchus o'ch henw ar y ddaiar."
Bardd Cwsc 61.
" Coffadwriaeth bendigedig."
Intro. to the Prayer Book.
Creadigaeth f. , but occasionally masculine, e.g.—
" V mae pob peth yn parhåu fel yr oeddynt o
ddechreuad y creadigaeth. "—2 Peter iii. 4.
Genedigaeth f. , but masculine in—
" Y ryw anedigaeth 20.
Gwasanaeth masculine, but feminine in—
" Gwir wasaneth Ffydd 46.
Hiraeth is always masculine :—
" Hwn a'm gyr heno i'm gorwedd :
Hiraeth myn Mair! a bair bedd."
D. ab G. CLXXV, 31-2.
Prynedigaeth masculine in—
" Llyfr y prynedigaeth."—Jeremiah xxxii. 12.

 
(delwedd L1286) (tudalen 027)

 
GENDER
27
Profedigaeth 'f.
It is usually masculine in the
Bible, as—
" Y n nydd y profedigaeth "—Heb. iii. 8 ;
but feminine in—
" Minnau a'th gadwaf di oddiwrth awr y brofedi-
gaeth."—Rev. iii. 10.
-edd m. • ' Gorfoledd ' and ' tangnefedd ' are occasion-
ally feminine ; e.g.—
" Myn eich gorfoledd, yr hon sydd gennyf yng
Nghrist lesu ein Harglwydd."—-l Cor. xv. 31.
" V dangneued honno a gyweirwyt."—Mab. 37—8.
" Ymgais thangnefedd, a dilyn hi."
Psalm xxxiv. 34.
-faf. But—
Morfa is always masculine :—
" A'r morfa yn drigfa iddo ef."
Job 90.
Compare ' Morfa Coch a farm near Dinas Dinlle.
Cynteddfa f. Masculine in—
" I.lenni 'r cynteddfa a fyddant liain main cyfro-
dedd."—Ex. xxvii. 9.
Compare also verses 12, 13, 17, IS, 19 ; Num.
iii. 26. etc.
Amddiffynfa f. Masculine in—

 
(delwedd L1287) (tudalen 028)

 
28
WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY
" Y ddau amddiffynfa hynny."
Il. Maccabees x. 23.
-ell f. As Brythonic masculine -illos > yll, and feminine
-illa > ell, words in -ell, of whatever origin, are apt
to become feminine. Hence—
Latin cultellus m. > Welsh cyllell f.
cancellus m. >
flagellum n. >
A few in -ell are masculine :—
cangell f.
mangell f.
castell, cawell, macrell, parchell or porchell.
-en f. As Brythonic feminine -ina > -en, all nouns in
-en Gent) tend to be treated as feminine. Hence—
Latin testamentum n. > Welsh testafen f.
(But testament ' is masculine.)
Latin firmamenturn n. > Welsh ffurfafen f.
monumentum n. >
mynwent f.
The corresponding masculine ending is ' -yn
( < Brythonic -inos). Hence the following doublets :—
clogyn (S. Wales) masc. ; clogan clogen) in
N. Wales, fem., a little cloak.
plufyn (S. Wales), m. ; pluen (N. Wales) f. , a
feather.
cordyn m.
cortyn m.
cilionyn m.
clofyn m.

 
(delwedd L1288) (tudalen 029)

 
corden f.
corten f.
cilionen f.
clofen f.
a string
a curtain
a fly
a knot, branch.
GENDER
-ineb m. But—
29
' doethineb ' is usually felninine. Wisdom per-
sonified is, by classical tradition, a goddess :
" Ond i ddangos i ti ddoethineb ddayarol y
från ", etc.—Ll. y T. A. 191.
Gad i ddoethineb watwar
Ein hocheneidiau ni ;
Gwell ydyw tristwch cariad
Na'i hoer bleserau hi."
Caniadau Prof. Morris Jones, 132.
•ydd m. Crefydd (f.) was formerly masculine—
" Lle y cadd y crefydd hwn faeth a dechreuad."
Deff. Fiydd 61.
" Y crefydd yr hwn yr oeddynt yn ei addef."
Ibid. 12. Cf. also pp. 178, etc.
Instances of its use in the feminine, however,
occur in the same text ; e.g.—
' I'r grefydd Gristnogawl."
17—18. So on p. 18.
IO.—CHANGES OF GENDER FROM MEDI.-EVAL
AND EARLY MODERN WELSH
addewid f. Masculine ip earlier literature, as—
" Eie a orchymynodd iddynt nad ymadawent o
Jerusalem, eithr disgwyl am addewid y Tad,
yr hwn, eb e/e, a glywsoch gennyf fl."
Acts i. 4.

 
(delwedd L1289) (tudalen 030)

 
30 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY
anadl f. Masculine in—
" Cynneddf hwn neb ni's cenyw,
Cynnadl dau anadl,—da yw ! ab. G. ccll.
Anadl bendigaid."—Deff. Ffydd 192.
anian f. , nature, instinct. Formerly sometimes mascu-
line, as_
" Fel trwy y rhai hyn, y byddech gyfrannogion
O'r duwiol anian."—2 Peter i. 4.
awyr f. Latin m. aer) was formerly masculine, as—
' Yr awyr buan."—Wisdom xiii. 2.
beibl m. Formerly feminine, as in
" Dr. William Morgan a gyfieythodd y Beibl
Ffydd, IX.
braich f. Latin n. brachium), older masculine,
and still of that gender occasionally, when meaning
' spur of a mountain,' or ' stave in a verse.'
" Da ddwyfron yn y fron frad,
Da ddeuiraich, nid oedd airad."
D. al) G. Cl.xxvlll. 11-12.
" Ac iel y drillid y braich derchaiedic."
l.lyfr Job 87.
" A braidd na roiswn ddiofryd byth wneuthur
un braich o bennill hyd oni chawn Ramadeg."
Llythyrau G. O. 74.
Masc. in Deut. vii. 19; Daniel .xi. 6, etc.
braint f. Masculine in Medi;eval Welsh, as—
y breint Land,

 
(delwedd L1290) (tudalen 031)

 
GENDER
And even in Patrwm y Gwir Gristion :—
31
" Cofia'r Braint a'r Urddas a dderbyniaist wrth
Arddodiaid I)wylo'r
breuddwyd m. ; but feminine in—
' Breudwyt a weleis i ac y vreudwyt y
gwelwn morwyn."—Mab. 86.
clod. Feminine in older Welsh, but now often masculine,
especially in South Welsh :
" Ac yna y bydd y glod i bob un gan I)duw."
1 Cor. iv. 5•
" Kido ef y bo'r y T. A. 262.
" Ni chaiff elw o rvfelwaith,
Na chlod wych hynod O. IV.
" Mae clod mawr yn ddyledus
clog, a cloak, mantle. Masculine in Media•val Welsh,
and so still in South Wales, wliere the diminutive
' clogyn ' is very commonly used. In Gwynedd it
is now feminine.
" Gydag ieir cei dy garu,
Y ceiliog dewr a'r clog du."
I). ab G. cx. 1-2.
" Y nuae dwv did o sidan,
Am Lio'n gl(jg melyn glån."
Dafydd Namnor G. B. C. 139.
colled f. Formerlv masculine :—
tri Cymru.
Y colled ni ellir ei y P. O.

 
(delwedd L1291) (tudalen 032)

 
32 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY
Feminine :—
" I ba beth y bu'r golled hon ? "—Matt. xxvi. 8.
crefydd f. Formerly masculine (v. above, under De-
rivatives).
cusan. Masculine in Medi:eval and still in South Welsh:—
Cywydd " i'r Cusan ".—I). ab G. CCII.
Feminine in modern North Welsh.
cyngrair m. Fem.inine. in Mediæval Welsh
" A phwy bynhac a dorrei y gygreir yn dirybud
y lad a wneit idaw."—Ystorya 18—19.
ciniaw. Feminine in Mediæval Welsh and still in
Demetian :—
" y ginyaw yn 43.
Masculine in modern North Welsh and often in
Gwentian.
chwedl f. Formerly masculine
chwedyl grymus."—-Vstorya 28.
" Codi'r osier niferoedd
I gid, a chwedl dybryd oedd."
D. ab G. CXLII. 61—2.
" chwedl garw."—D. y P. O. 43.
" chwedl parod."—G. O. Llythyrau 109.
damwain f. Formerly masculine :—
" damwein 19.
" (y) damwein tyghetuenawl hwnnw."
Brutien 48.

 
(delwedd L1292) (tudalen 033)

 
GENDER
" Pryd Cain, pan fu'r damwain da,
33
A roes Duw Nef ar Efa."—D. ab G. x.xrx.
" Ac eto mi a welais yr un damwain yn digwydd
iddynt 11. 14.
N.B.—In—" Ni o ddrwg un wala,
Ni thrain Ile bo damwain da."—G. O. 47.
' da' is a noun.
dawn. Formerly masculine, and still so dialectally in
parts of North and South Wales :—
" Chwiliwn, 0 chawn y dawn da,
Hyd rwndir daear India."
G. O. Y Maen Gwerth/awr.
dinas. Formerly an entrenched encampment, a hill fort,
and always masculine :—
" Llu y brenhin ae allu yssyd yn dyuot yr dinas
hwnn hediw. "—Mab.
So still in many place-names, as—
Tan y Dinas, Dinas Cerdin.
dyn. Often used for woman in mediæval and early
modern literature, and then always feminine :—
Gwisg angel 0 wallt melyn,
Yn wr$dd aur am wår y ddyn."—D. ab G. Vll.
" Nyt oes yn y byt dyn vwy y galar no hi."
Mab. 24.
Mwynach a fych, fy meinwen,
Archaf i I)duw Naf, ddyn wen."
G. O. Calendr y Carwr.

 
(delwedd L1293) (tudalen 034)

 
34 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHII.OLOC,Y
The formally feminine ' dynes ' is met with occasion-
ally, even in older literature ; e.g.—
" Cefais, dywedaf rhag gofld,
Ddynes fwyn i'r llwyn rhag Ilid."
D. ab G. LXXXI. 13-14.
Colloquially the term ' dynes ' is seldom used outside
Gwynedd.
ellyn. Now masculine, as—
Fel ellyn llyrn, yn g',vneuthur lii. 2.
But feminine in Medic•eval Welsh, as—
" Ac odyna agori prenuol a thynnu ellyn, ae
charn o asgwrn eliphant."—Mab. 176.
ffrwd. Masculine in Mediæval Welsh—
" tri ffrwt o waet."—Mab. 203.
Now feminine—
" dwy ffrwd felyngoch. O. I-lythyrau 37.
gwaew, g wayw. Feminine in Modern Welsh, probably
through association with ' ffon ' (f.) in ' gwaewffon '
Masculine in older Welsh :
" A gwaew gantunt anveitrawl y veint."
Mab. 203.
" Ymauael a oruc yspadaden penkawr yn un or
tri Ilechwaew gwennwynnic oed geir y law. "
Mab. 118.
gweithred f. Masculine in Brutieu, e.g.

 
(delwedd L1294) (tudalen 035)

 
GENDER
35
" Clot oed y gweithret hwnnw y wyr groec."—2.
gnvalch m. , as—
" A ch»v 'r estrys, a'r fran nos, a'r gog a'r
gwalch yn ei ryw."—Lev. xi. 16.
Feminine in Mab. 211—
" A gwalch wyllt wedy llad hwyat."
gwirionedd m. In Llyfr y Tri Aderyn it is generally
masculine, but on p. 200 he speaks of
' Y wirionedd."
Compare also ' gwir ', feminine in Edw. Samuel
' Gwir ddiwåd
gwobr f. But formerly masculine, as—
' Ag ar gwobr brynta."—Deff. Ffydd 68.
" Gwobr da am eu IV. 9.
hanes m. Often fem. in 18th and 19th cent. writings:
' Hanes .
. y P. O. 63.
' Hanes Welsh Dict. 1815.
haul m. Feminine in Medi:eval literature
" Hyd y llawr, dirfawr derfyn
Haul a ddaw mal hoywliw ddyn,
Yn deg, o fewn corph y dydd
Bugeilies wybr bwygilydd."—D. ab G. I.XII.
" Haul dlos geinwedd."—Edmund Prys.
Cornpare Old English ' sunne ', feminine. Modern
English, sun ' is masculine when personified.
Note that the obsolete ' huan ', sun, also was feminine.

 
(delwedd L1295) (tudalen 036)

 
36 WEI.SH GRAMMAR AND PHILOIOGY
Heddwch m. Feminine in—
" Hedwch lwydyannus."—Mab. 99.
llyn. Feminine in the Mabinogion :—
" A diwarnawt mynet a oruc y iarlles ae llaw-
uorynyon y orymdeith gan ystlys llynn a
oed yn y parc hyt ar gyfeir y chanawl."—
183.
" A gweisson yn pyscotta ar y llynn honno. "—200
And it is still feminine in Demetian. The diminutive
there is ' llynwen .
In Bardd Cwsc it is masculine ; e.g.—
" I-lyn tro
And so regularly in Gwynedd. There the diminutive
is ' llynwyn ' ; e.g.—
" Aeth y plentyn melyn wylofus yn llynwyn o
waed rhwng ei Sioned 86.
It is masculine in Gwentian also.
llys, now masculine, formerly feminine :—
Fem : " Yn llys kyfurd a honno."—Mab. 197.
"Vyn tat i bioed y kyuoeth hwnn yn veu
idaw e hun ar llys honn."—Mab. 207.
So ' Llyswen ' , a farmhouse in Llangristiolus, Anglesey.
" Y mae'n 011 mewn ewyllys,
Yn dri llu yn dy dair llys."—G. B. C. 134.
Masc.: " Llys teg iawn ac arno"
Cwsc 16.

 
(delwedd L1296) (tudalen 037)

 
. — Bardd
GENDER
nef f. Masculine in older Welsh (r. above).
37
person (<l.atin persona f.) m. , but fem. in Med. lit. :
" Dwy Ancr 3.
" Teir person."—Ystorya 19.
pebyll (modern pabell, v. chapter on Number) was for-
merly masculine, e.g. in William Salesbury's New
Testament we meet with—
' tri phebyll."—Mark ix.
' Ein dayarol duy y pebyll (margin—lluest,
trigva) Cor. v. 1.
plat, a Plate, sheet, m. Fem. in—
" Arhoes ef [yno] yny vyd y pleit hayarn yn
33•
siwrnai f. Masculine in—
" Haws YW cael, Ile bai gwael gwjdd,
Siwrnai dwfn, saer na defnydd."
D. ab G. cxxl. 43—4.
" To gv,Tdd las fal tw gardd-lwyn."
Edw. Morus, Y Dderwen.
Feminine in Mabinogion 254—
" A thorri to o beleidyr a thorri yr eil a thorri y
dryded do."
IT.—DIALECTAL DIFFERENCES
Many nouns vary in gender according to locality
Adroddiad m. in Demetian. Often fem. in Gwynedd.

 
(delwedd L1297) (tudalen 038)

 
WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY
anercliiad m. in Demetian. ()ften feminine in Gwynedd.
alarch m.
" Cyfarch, meddwl alarch mwyn,
Gwell iddi, ddyn gall addwyn."
D. ab G. CLXXVII.
And so in Gwvnedd and in Gwentian to-day ; but it
is often feminine in Dernetian.
Amser m. But sometitnes feminine in Gwynedd :—
" Dvwedodd, wrth ymado,
Na chawn mo'i gweled eto
Tan haf a than y caf
Droi adre'r amser honno."
Caniadau Prof. Morris Jones.
aradr f. in S. W. ; m. in N. W.
arf m. in Gwynedd, and its diminutive is ' erfyn ' •
" Tri arf cyvreith y sydd."—Cyfreithiau Cymru.
But it is feminine in parts of S. W. , and so in—
" Arf ddu hir, ni orfvdd hon ;
Philip.
Arfer dewr ari fer dirion.'
bawd m—f. Feminine in Anglesey, where it is often re.
Y Fawd ' is a house
ferred to as fodryb fawd
in Llangristiolus, in the same county.
basged f. in N. W. and Gwentian ; m—f. in Dernetian.
brooch f. in N. W. ; m. in S. W.
• Quoted by Dr. Silvan Evans (s.v. •ari

 
(delwedd L1298) (tudalen 039)

 
39
bwrdd m. N. W. ,
carol m. in N. W. •
GENDER
bord f., S. W.
f. in S. W.
ciniaw m. in N. W. and Gwentian ; f. in Demetian.
clod, generally feminine in literature, as—
' Ond dwyn y gerdd wrthwyneb
Y glod yn anglod i neb. ab G. CXXVII.
Drws y glod a droes y glaw
Drwy elor o dra wylaw."—G. B. C. 177.
" Na chlod O. 12.
But conunonly masculine in S. W., and often in N. W.
clog f. in Gwynedd ; m. in S. W. , where the diminutive
' clogyn ' is the regular form used.
clust m. in most parts of S. W. , and in S. W. literature—
123, Brutieu 54.
Feminine in N. W., and in N. W. literature—
" Onid y glust a ddirnad ymadroddion ? "
l.lyvyr Job 27.
' Dwy glust."—Ll. y T. A. 179.
coler m. in S. W. ; f. in N. W.
• cornel f. in N. W. ; m. in S. W.
crombil m. in N. W. ; f. in parts of S. W.
cwpan f. in N. W. ; m. in S. W.—
" Y T air Gwpan Hughes.

 
(delwedd L1299) (tudalen 040)

 
40 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY
cynfas f. in N. W.—
' cynfas glaerwen."—Morris Letters 203.
Masculine in S. W., where it is generally pronounced
' cafnas '.
cyflog m. in N. W. ; f. in Demetian.
chwarel f. in N. W. ; ' cwarre ' m. in S. W.
chwech (six-hence) m. in N. W. ; f. in S. W.
eiliad (a second) m.-f. in N. W. ; f. in S. W.
gwniadur m. in N. W. ;
f. in S. W.
llyn m. in N. W. and Gwentian ; f. in Demetian.
nyth m. Generally fem. in Demetian.
pennill m. Occasionally fem. in Anglesey, and so in—
" Ac y mae un o ben-prydyddion yr oes honno yn
dymuno llwyddiant iddo ef a'i wyr, yn y
fath bennill a hon."—l). y P. , O. , 38.
pin f. in Gwynedd, m. in Demetian.
rhyfel m. in S. W. ; f. in Guynedd.
såch a sack, m. in Gwynedd, f. in Demetian.
swper m. in N. W. , and so in—
Y swpper Ffydd 37.
" Swpper mawr."—Luke xiv. 16.
Generally feminine in Demetian.
tafarn f. in N. W. ; m. in S. W.
tie m. in N. W. , as_
' tie du ', ' tie gwyn ', but sometimes
Feminine in S. W.

 
(delwedd L1300) (tudalen 041)

 
tie wen
GENDER
41
troed m. in N. W. Cf. also ' deutroet ' , Mab. 188.
ar ei bedwar troed."—Ex. xxv. 26.
Feminine in Demetian and Gwentian.
cryman m. Fem. in Arfon.
12 .—Again, many words show PECULIARITY OF GEN DER
IN PARTICUI.AR AUTHORS. Some of these may prove to
be dialectal differences, or instances of changes in the
history of words. Others will remain as words present-
ing difficulty of gender to the writer :—
aberth m. But feminine in—
" Yr aberth honno."—Deff Ffydd.
achos m. Feminine in
' achos fwya."—Bardd Cwsc 40.
anwiredd m. Feminine in Amos i. 3, 6, 9, 11, 13.
caethiwed m. Feminine in—
" rydit or ryw geithywet 50.
" Am iddynt gaeth-gludo'r gaethiwed gyflawn."
cath f. Masculine in—
" Y cath a estynnawdd ei balf
cerydd m. Feminine in—
" O bob gair segur y bydd
Cyfri'r gwr cofia'r gerydd."
Amos i. 6.
MSS.
Edw. Morus, Llwon O/er.
cwymp m. Feminine in—

 
(delwedd L1301) (tudalen 042)

 
42 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY
diod f.
" Och O'r gwymp drachwerw gånt."
G. O. Sion Iler/u•rl.
Masculine in—
" Diod peraidd. "—Story o/ I hcynwcn in 1010 MSS.
Masculine in—
" Dadl mawr yn eu xxviii. 29.
dryt,v m. Feminine in—
" Nerth dryw ei
dull m. But H. Perri generally, and otljers occasionally,
use it as fem. (v. Silvan Evans' Dict.).
(lycllynmyg m. Feminine in—
" Dychymmyg ryfeddol oedd hon "—D. V P. O. (:6.
Y ddychymyg S. 148.
eryr m. Fem.—because I—at. aquila is fem.—in—
" Teml rhwng dwy eryr."—D. y P. O.
heresi f. Masculine in—
dylid ei Ffydd 19.
' Heresi .
Ile m. Feminine in—
" Lle honn."
—Mab. 3.
moes f. Masculine perhaps in—
" moes boneddigaidd. "—Bardd Cwsc 26.
pla and cymysgbla m. Feminine in the Bible. Dr.
Silvan Evans suggests that this is due to the fem.
gender of the Greek and Latin parent words
" A daeth cymmysgbla drom i Pharaoh."
Ex. viii. 24.
" Un bla etto a ddygaf ar xi. 1.

 
(delwedd L1302) (tudalen 043)

 
GENDER
43
pobl f. But Edw. S. , p. has this curious sentence
" Nid oes fodd tnai yr un bobl oedd yr Irvvn y
dywed Esai arn dano."
rhyfyg m. Feminine in—
sail f.
sect f.
' Rhyfyg wallgofus."—Edw. S. 24.
Masculine in—
" Sail .
. ei Ffydc}, 183.
" Sail da."
W. Salesbury, r Tim. vi. 19.
Masculine in—
" Yr hwn ytoedd sect y Tsadduceit."
Salesbury, Acts v. 17.
synnwyr. Masculine in—
" Synwyr cyffredin."—G. O. Llythyrau 103.
" Synnwyr Pen."
William Salesbury.
Feminine in—
" Synwyr Cwsc 78.
" Synwyr ddeallus."—Edw. S.
And so in Ll. y T. A. 162.
sylfaen f. Masculine in—
" Sylfaen arall ni's gall neb ei osod."
1 Cor. iii. 11.
tafod m. Fem.—by metonylny for
" Heblaw'r dafod Roeg."—Deff. Ffydd viii.
terfysg m. Fetninine in—
" Pan ddistawodd y derfysc."
Bardd Cwsc 115.

 
(delwedd L1303) (tudalen 044)

 
44 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOI.OGV
tir m. Fem.—by metonymy for cors—in—
Yn y dir 'r wy'n ymddiried
A gwn y cair ynddi ged."
G. O. Cywydd i Ofyn Ffrancod.
ty m. Fem.—by metonymy for " ystafell " or " pleit "
—in Mab. 33.
ymadrodd m. As in—
" ymadrawd hwnnw."—Brutieu 50.
Fem. in—" Ymadrodd odidog. "—Deff. Ffydd 169.
ystlys m. But—
" dwy ystlys."—Caradoc of I-lancarvan.
And so generally in South Wales.
IN—WORDS VARYING IN GENDER ACCORDING
TO THEIR MEANING
Many pairs of homonyms might be adduced, as
gwaith m. work
gwaith f.
time
llwyn m. bush, grove llwyn f. loin
porth m. gate, door porth f. harbour, port
But as such words are quite distinct, except that they
happen to be identical in sound, they will be excluded
from the following list :
achles f. shelter, refuge, harbour, protection, support.—
North Wales.
m. manure, fertilizing substance—South Wales.

 
(delwedd L1304) (tudalen 045)

 
GENDER
adeilad m. the act o/ building. construction.
feminine often when = a building, edifice ;
" Adeilad deg."— Bardd Cwsc 44.
" Adeilad hon."—lbid. 45.
anian f. nature, instinct, disposition.
m. a living being.
" Natur a wnaeth—iawn ytyw—.
Ei rhan ar bob anian byw."—G.
45
cariad, m. But when denoting a lady-love it is some-
times feminine
" Myfi a'rn cariad J. M. J. 145
cethlydd m. a singer. songster.
f. a singing bird, warbler, cuckoo.
coes f. leg.
, m. in North Wales when = a handle
" Y coes."—Prof. Lloyd's Llyfr Cyntaf Hanes 24.
Croes f. cross.
m. transept ; e.g.—
" Croes glandeg. "—Bardd Cwsc 45.
cyfarwyddyd m. guidance, party of guides.
f. sometimes. when = story, account ; e.g.—
" Ag fal hynn y mae'r gyfarwyddyd."—lolo MSS. 39.

 
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46 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY
Cymraeg f. the Welsli language.
m. the stvle of an individual writer, or the
Welsh of a particular period ; e.g.—
" Cymraeg pur, cyhyrog Daiydd ab Gwilym."
draig f. a dragon.
masculine in one or two writers, when used in
the sense of ' a leader ' or ' the Devil ' :
" y draig mawr." *—T. Huet.
deheu m. south.
f. the right, the right hand.
ewyllys, will, inclination, desire, is generally masculine :—
" Yr hwn ewyllys."—Heb. x. 10.
" Ewyllys rhydd."—Ll y T. A. 162, 174, etc.
f. when = a will, a testament.
golwg m. eye, eyesight :—
" Dau gydymaith gyvvaithas,
Dau olwg leddf, a dail glas."
D. ab G. CXLVIII.
f. generally when = aspect, amearance :—
" Nyt oed olwc degach nor eidi."—Mab. 117.
" Etto gwelir, hir fy hun,
Olwg dost ar ei eulun."—D. ab G. CXCIV.
" I-lys anferthol o faint. a thirion iawn yr olwg
cynta."—Bardd Cwsc 27.
• Quoted by Dr. Silvan Evans (s.c. draig

 
(delwedd L1306) (tudalen 047)

 
GENDER
47
N.B.—The 'c ' in ' cynta ' for ' g ' is due to the surd
value of the two ' g's olwg gynta '—and is not to be
taken as evidence that ' golwg ' is masculine here.
Compare ' dreig coch ' in the Bruts for ' dreig goch '.
The poets often indicate the hard sound of ' -g g- ' by
writing ' -g c- ', as—
" Draig cynnar y dryghinoedd."
See page 15 above.

 
(delwedd L1307) (tudalen 048)

 
CHAPTER 111
NUMBER IN NOUNS
r.—THE DUAL:
THE existence at one time of the DUAL NUMBER in
Welsh was discussed under the Article (q.v.). Some
further evidence of its use may be adduced here.
It is a well-known principle that the initial consonant
of an adjective following a plural noun is not softened,
e.g.—
merched diwyd (not ddiwyd)
ystafelloedd bychain (not fychain).
In the following examples. however, where the Dual
would naturally occur in a language retaining that
number, the initial of the adjective is softened :—
" Deu uann gochyon 205.
" Deu vilgi vronnwynnyori vrychyon."—Mab. 225.
' Didolc a llym yw d' adain,
Dy wobr fydd dau gywydd ab G. CLXIV.
" Da o beth fydd deubeth fwyn
V m Mai, irwydd a morwyn. ab G. CXLVIII.
" Gwae fl! na chair deuair deg,
Oni chawn un ychwaneg."—D. ab G. Cl.XX.
" y ddau Ymherawdr gyfreithlon."—D. y P. O. 68.

 
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NUMBER IN NOUNS
Contrast—
" Cerais un dyn cwrs hin-deg
Dan gariad y teir gwlad ab G. CLXX.
As explained under the Article, the vowel-ending
Dual would account for the mutation.
Other traces oi the Dual are found in such compounds
dwylaw; deubar. couple, two (e.g. D. ab G. LXXIV. ;
2 Kings v. ; du-yen ; dwyfron, etc. ; and in
' Yr Eifl ', mountains in South-West Carnarvon-
shire. Contrast the plural ' y gaflau ' with the
initial ' g ' retained.
' Dwylaw ' is interesting in that it is an instance of
the Dual ousting the Plural.
' Dwy ddwylaw ' (Micah vii. 3), as well as ' deubar '
(Nehemiah Niii. 24), is pleonastic.
2.—The study of the PI-VRAL NUMBER is interesting
and instructive. Thus many words have changed
their plural form ; others have two plurals, some with
difference of meaning, others without ; some form their
singular from the plural, and others have a mutated
, vowel in the singular reverting to its more original
form in the plural. A few have double plurals, others
no plural at all, and a very small number no singular.
We will here discuss and illustrate some of the more
instructive features oi the subject.

 
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WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY
3.—W0Rns THAT HAVE CHANGED THEIR PLURAL
FORM :
(a) Anything like an exhaustive list would run to
many pages, and would serve no useful purpose. A
few examples will suffice to illustrate the fact.
Many nouns have substituted -oedd for older -edd :—
brenhinedd : " A bot breint y escop y Ile hynny y
urdaw escyb y wlat ae brenhined."
Ystorya 25.
dyfredd :
" Ar dy/red a edewit yn diffrwyth."—Mab. 94.
tiredd : " Nid oes di•r na• dwys diredd
Na goror yul mör a'i medd."
G. O. Y Maen Gwerthfawr.
ynysedd :
" Dyred i'n gwlad, dur iawn gledd,
Deyrnaswr, dr.vy ynysedd."
1010 Goch, G. B. C. 120.
(b) Plural by vowel change used to be much com-
moner than it is to-day ; e.g.—
Gwyddel—gwyddyl : " Beth yssyd yn y boly hwnn
heb ef wrth un or gwydyl ? "
Mab. 38.
" Gwna lynges gain o longwyr
O gyniyl Gwyddyl a'i p,vyr."
1010 Goch, G. B. C. 120.

 
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NUMBER IN NOUNS
51
Ffreinc = Ffrancod : Gwiffert petit y geilw y Oreinc,
ar brenhin bychan y geilw y kymry el."
Mab. 281.
Ffrancod in Bardd Cwsc 69.
seren—syr : " Ef a arganuu ar y nef mal fiord o syr."
Ystorya 1.
" Gwevvyr, rhif y syr, y sydd
Yn difa holl gorph Dafvdd."
Gruffydd Gryg.
(See D. ab G. cxx. 13—14.)
The reader will have noticed—
' gwewyr ' plural of ' gwaew ', ' gwayw
in the last quotation. The context leaves no manner
of doubt as to its number. Compare Isaiah xiii. 8..
" Gwewyr a doluriau a'u deil hwynt."
Pangs and sorrows shall take hold o/ them.
In Mediæval literature it was ' gwaewar', ' gwaewawr',
and had its literal meaning of spears ; e.g.
" Sef a wnaeth y weisson seuyll kastellu eu taryaneu
yn y gylch ar peleidyr gwaewar rac yr heul."
Mab. 82.
" Gwaywawr trymffysg mal o'th eurddysg mal i'th
urddwyd."—M. A. 298a.
(c) Plurals in -awr were not uncommon in Mediaeval
literature ; *
* Compare Prol- Anwyl's Edition oi the Gogynfeirdd (Gee
and Son), pp. 11—15.

 
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52
WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY
a shield plural aesawr, aessawr.
aes
cleddyf a sword
cleddyfawr.
(d) OTHER CHANGES are illustrated in—
caer—ceyrydd, ceurydd ; now generally caerau :—
" Distryweist uygkeyryd."—ystorya 12.
" Alecsander Mawr, uwch cawr ceurydd,
Ynillai y byd, a llu bedydd."—G. B. C. 265.
' Caerau in—
" Cur gestyll caerau gystudd,
Concweria wål cwn Caer Ludd."
1010 (loch, G. B. C. 120.
ewig—ewiged, now ewigod •
" Ef a gymliellv•.'ys yr ewiged y gyt ar geifyr y
mywn. "—Mab. 194.
brawd—broder and brodyr :—
Deu vroder un ualll ac 20.
" Afiaclms fu faicli oes fer,
Eclidoe fryd eich dau /roder."
•rudur Aled, G. B. C. 228.
' Brodyr ' in—
" y urodyr maeth," his foster brothers.—Mab. 34.
' Cymru ' as well as ' Cymry ' was used for Welsh People
in the 10th, 17th, and 18th centuries, e.g.—
" Arwydd i annerch y Cymru."
Ll y Tri Aderyn (title page).

 
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NUMBER IN NOUNS
53
' Kymry ' was the invariable form in Mediæval
literature for both Wales and IVc/sh People :—
" Y gwaratwyd a gawssei vatholwch ygkymry."
Mab. 34.
" Ar brenhin bychan y geilw y Kymry ef."
Mab. 281.
morwyn—morynion, and so still in dialects, as in
Demetian :—
" Yd oed S".vreic vawr delediw yn eisted y mywn
kadeir a llaw uorynyon yn amyl yn y chylch."
Mab. 210.
' Lloer morynyon llawr Meirionydd."
M. A. 335 b.
Also in Caniadau Prof. Morris Jones—
' ' Morynion bro Meirionydd—
Ba raid son ?—yn hoywbryd sydd,
Y n hyfryd Ian rianedd
Fal blodau 'r drain, gain eu gwedd."
Cywydd Priodas Owen M. Edwards.
4.—Many nouns have TWO or MORE PI-URAL FORMS
without any appreciable difference of meaning ; e.g. .
Ilith —
Sant —
tref —
Ilithoedd and Ilithiau.
saint and seintiau.
trefi and trefydd.
5.—Others have Two PLURAL FORMS with difference of
meaning, though it should be added that distinct words

 
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54 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY
like ' llwyn,' grove, bush, and ' llwyn,' loin, which happen
to be identical in form, Can scarcely be held to come
into this category :
amser
bron
cam
occasion, point of time amserau (pl.).
period, a round o/ time amseroedd, amserau.
breast, pap
hill-side
step
an injustice, wrong
bronnau.
bronnydd.
camrau.
cammau.
" Ar rheini a wnaethant gammau drwy blundrio'r
y Tri Aderyn 172.
cern
the side o/ the head
a steep hill-side
cernau.
cernydd.
Tri pheth anhydrefn eu defnydd ; nyth ysguthan ;
cernydd Moel Maen Llwyd ; ac iaith y Sais."
cyngor —counsel, advice
canon
(eithaf)
council
a church dignitary
rule, law
Trioedd Doethineb.
cynghorion.
cynghorau.
canoniaid.
canonau.
confines, furthest reaches eithafoedd.
extremes (metaphorical) eithafion.
" A cherdet racdaw a oruc citha/oed byt."—Mab. 170.
llwyth
person
tribe
load, burden
person
Parson, clergyman
llwythau.
llwythi.
personau.
personiaid.

 
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NUMBER IN NOUNS
55
pwyth
WY neb
stitch, point
wedding gift
face, countenance
surface
pwythatl, pwytlli.
pwython.
wynebau.
wyne bion.
" O ganol gwaelod y ddayar ir wynebion."
ysbryd spirit, soul
ghost
mood, courage
Llyfr y Tri Aderyn 226.
ysbrydoedd, ysbry-
dion.
ysbrydion.
ysbrydoedd.
It must however be admitted that the distinctions
here tabulated have not always been observed.
Thus ' cynghorau ' is used for ' cynghorion ' in—
" Tro dy bwyll at gynghorau doethion." *—M. A.
llwythau for llwythi—
" Wele, pobl y wlad yn awr ydynt lawer, a pharasoch
iddynt beidio å'u v. 5.
Compare also Exodus vi. 6, 7.
Similar confusion is shown in the use of ' llwynau '
for ' llwyni ' in D. y P. O. 48 :—
" Yr oedd Vnys Fön y pryd hwnnw yn llawn o Lan-
neirch a Llwynau pen-dewon."
So also in Deff Ffydd 167, 169. ' Llwynau ' is usually
the plural of ' llwyn,' loin, while the regular plural of
' Alwyn,' a bush, grove, is ' llwyni.'
• Quoted in Dr. Silvan Evans's Dictionary, s.7. Cynghor.

 
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56 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY
In view of the fact that ' brodor,' a native, is a doublet
of ' brawd ' (for ' brawdr '), brother, it does not seem
strange that in earlier literature brodorion,' now the
plural of ' brodor,' should be often used for brothers ;
" Ac ymgeissaw a oruc ae gedymdeithon ae vrodoryon
maeth."—Mab. 144 (cf. 203, 207).
6.—Other nouns, again, have TWO PLURAL FORMS,
irnl)lying no distinction of meaning, but originating in
different DIALECTS :—
North South Wales
cariad
llythyr
And again—
cath
nyth
cariadau
llythyrau
cathod
nythod
cariadon
llythyron
cathau
nythau
The student of the Mabinogion will not fail to notice
another difference of wide application in the plural of
nouns, and one that is still characteristic of Demetian
and Gwentian : the dropping of consonantal ' i ' before
certain terminations if the preceding syllable is diph-
thongal. In the two dialects named the plural suffix in
such cases is -on, -aid, not -ion, -iaid, and often -au
for -iau, as—
meinon formeinion ; anifeiled ( = anifeilaid) for anfeiliaid.
eneide eneidau), gweithe gweithau) for eneidiau,
gweithiau.

 
(delwedd L1316) (tudalen 057)

 
NUMBER IN NOUNS
Nor is this difference confined to plurals ; e.g. :
57
N. W. ceiniog, draeniog, treulio, are in S. W. ceinog.
draenog, treulo.
7.—DOVBLE PLURALS are not uncommon ; as—
arwyddonau arwydd) :
" Oliuer hagen aegwant ef yn gymwys trwy y holl
arwydoneu tec ae aruev."—Ystorya 47.
celaneddau :
" Lleinw leoedd å cx. 6.
negeseuau or negeseuon :
" I ba beth y mae 'n rhoi negcseuon arnaf ? "
Llythyrau G. O. 121.
teiau :
" Oni wyddosti i böd nhwy yn yrnlusgo i dciau ? "
Ll. y T. A. 170.
Other examples, some of which are common, may be
mentionecl, such as—
asglodion blodeuon or blodeuoedd clychau
chwedleuon
estyllod
dagreuoedd
geneuau
dieuoedd (<diau,
peliyllau [days)
Dillaclau ' and Iloiau ' are used in Anglesey, and
sometimes in literature
" Addoli Iloyeu Ffydcl 134.
8.2Some nouns occasionally restore or insert an / '
before a plural termination, as—

 
(delwedd L1317) (tudalen 058)

 
58 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY
brofydd (usually broydd) < bro :
" Mae yrna 0 30 i 40 nad oeddynt gennyf na Chyn neb
arall yn y bro/ydd yma."—The Morris Letters
I. 162.
. bwafau (usually bwäau or bwåu) < bwa :
" Goreu naf å bwafau,
Gorau ior y rnwyn-ior mau." *—Lang Lewys.
liefydd (usually Ileoedd) < lie :
" Digwyddodd i ddau frawd
. . . a fase yn gweithio
mewn Ile/ydd eraill . . ."—The Morris Letters 214.
llyfon, llyfau (as well as the more common llwon') < llw :
" Meddwdod, lly/on, cwerylon, enllib a chelwydd."
Bardd Cwsc 119.
" Ein Iliaws gwår yn Ilesghau,
Am oer lefain mawr lyfau."
Edward Morns, Llwon Ofer.
' llwf' is probably a back formation from llyfon,
llyfau :
" Ond am lw/, nid aml ofyn
Gan swyddog ddiysgog dcl$n,
Y llw hwn, gwelwn y gwir,
Enau hardd ni waherddir."
Edward Morns, ibid.
All the instances here adduced originally contained
the guttural ' g' : thus ' bro' is ' brog-' in Allobroges
(Welsh ' Allfro-wyr '), a Celtic tribe in ancient Gaul ;
' bwa ' is from a root ' bug,' seen in Old English ' buga '
• Quoted by Dr. Silvan Evans, v. under bwa.'

 
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NUMBER IN NOUNS
59
Mod. Eng. ' bow ' Ile' is cognate with Latin
' locus ,
and ' llw ' was in Old Irish ' luge.' There is
nothing philologically difficult in assuming that the
guttural ' g '—lost when final, as in ' -ma,' ' -fa ' from
' mag '—was retained and advanced to the labio-dental
position ( —
' f ' ) when another syllable followed. With
such a change compare English ' laugh,' tough,' etc.,
where the final sound was originally guttural, as it is
still indicated in writing. Also ' pythefnos' < pym-
thegnos '
Another fact, while perhaps merely sewing to rein-
force the operation of the above change, would suffice
to account for the ' f.' Final ' f' is regularly dropped
in colloquial Welsh, as ' tre' and ' cynta' for ' tref '
and ' cyntaf,' but it is restored when another syllable
is added ; e.g. ' trefi,' ' cyntefig.' The analogy of ' tre
trefi ' would readily extend the ' f ' to ' Ile—llefydd,'
and to avoid two vowels coming together it might find
a place in the plural of bro,' bwa,' and ' llw.'
' Edau,' plural ' edafedd,' is different, in that final
-u is a weakened form of ' w' or 'f' from 'm' (O.
Welsh ' etem
root vowel of several nouns is
disguised in the singular, but it sometimes reappears in
a more radical form in the plural, as—
celain
" Ac yna y byrywt y kalaned yn y perr
celanedd
• 39.
elain
elanod
Amsathyr dynyon nac alanoi nys 205.

 
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60 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY
rhiain
rhianedd
" Rhiain loyw firain leferydd 333b.
" Y n iach can i'r rhiancdd
Del i'r rhain dal wS'r a hedd."—G. O.
Other examples are—
Singular
adain
daint
deigr, deigryn
Ileidr
neidr
Plural
adanedd
dannedd
dagrau
lladron
nadredd, naclroedd
I-lawer o bysgawt ac adar a gwenyn ac anadred."
Ystorya 21.
" Fel nythed o y T. A. 191.
" Seirph, nadroedd . . . a'r cyfielyb."—B. Cwsc.
' Daint ' is peculiar. It is never a plural in Anglesey,
while in South Wales it would be regularly regarded
as of that number. ' Daint' is found as a plural in
Goronwy Owen's Cyfieithiad 0 Anacreon :
" Daint hirion llymion i'r Ilew
and Goronwy was an Anglesey man.
nouns form the singular
from the plural or a collective form, as—
Plural
adar
blodau

 
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Si ngular
aderyn
leuyn
NUMBER IN NOUNS
61
cnau
drysi
gwybed
llygod
malwod
piod
plant
pysgod
cneuen
drysien
gwy bed y n
llygoden
malwoden
pioden
plentyn
pysgodyn
' Pysgod ' is formed from pysg,' itself now often used
in the plural, but strictly a singular, from Latin ' piscis.'
It is singular in—
" Mynet a oruc kei a bedwyr ar dwy yscwyd y hysc."
Mab. 131.
The singular, ' pi,' is occasionally used—
" Dammeg: yr Ysguthan a'r Bi."
1010 MSS. 159.
practice of forming singulatives
from plurals and collectives by the addition of -yn,
-en, has led to the formation of many hybrids in collo-
quial speech, as—
bribysyn or bribsyn < plural of English ' bribe,'
which meant originally a fragment.
bricsen < English, bricks.
clocsen <
clogs.
' Briwsion
, ' ' briwsionyn,' have taken the English
plural suffix s by analogy, though the word
' briw ' is
native, and the pure doublets ' briwion,'
briwionyn , '
occur'.

 
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62 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY
12.—INCORRECT PLURALS
Some writers regularly write ' merchaid,' ' pryfaid,'
ychain' for ' merched,' ' pryfed,' ' ychen,' though
instances of the correct forms abound in the classics.
merched : " Merchet teyrned ynys prydein. "—Mab. 149.
" Canwyll merched y SAS'ledydd ;
Cred a roes honno i'r crydd."
D. ab G. CLXIX.
" Briwaw y pryuet a oruc ymplith y dwfyr."
pryfed :
Mab. 97 (cf. Bardd Cwsc 95).
ychen (cf. English ' oxen ')—
" Oni th'rewais gwr fy ngén
Ar ucha' cöryr ychen."—D. ab G. Cl.V111. 17.
Edw. Samuel writes ' ychain ' on page 98 of Gwirio-
nedd y Grefydd Gristionogol—
" megys• elephantiaid, Ilewod, ceffylau, ychain."
13.—A few plurals are of especial interest :—
nefoedd, plural of ' nef,' is often used as a singular :—
" Efe a esgynnodd i'r nefoedd."
(He ascended into heaven.)
The usage is a Hebraism.
ysgyfaint, lungs, is a plural of ' ysgafn,' by false
analogy oi car—ceraint,' ' gof—gofaint,' etc. For
a parallel term compare English ' lights,' often
used for these organs in lower animals.
pebyll was originally singular, as—
" Ac yn y llannerch y gwelei bebyll. Ac yn rith

 
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NUMBER IN NOUNS
63
eglwys ef a gant y pader wrth y pebyll. A
pharth ar 'cbyll y doeth, a drws y pebyll a
oed yn agu•ret, a chadeir eureit oed yn agos yr
195—6.
And the plural was ' pebylleu ' :
" Ac ny welas neb Ile amlach pcbylleu."
Mab. 207—8.
Hence ' pabell ' is a modern back formation, through
a mistaken notion that ' pebyll ' was plural.
Bresych : the Latin ' brassica ' (or rather ' brassicca ' )
should yield Welsh brasech. The form ' bresych
is from the plural ' brassiccae.'
crwys is usually treated as plural of ' crocs on
the analogy of such words as—
croen
oen
crwyn
In origin it comes from the Latin singular • crux,'
and instances occur of its use in that number ; e.g.—
" Wrth y gair yma, pren, y deallir y grwys y Croes-
hoelwyd Crist arni."—Henri Perri.
Crwysgad, crusade.
" Y mae dan ei gncys " is a familiar expression in
South-west Wales for a body between death and burial.
The expression recalls a Roman Catholic custom.
' Cerbyd ', on the other hand, is in origin plural.
Compare the Irish singular form, carpal.

 
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CHAPTER IV

DIMINUTIVES

I. — THE suffixes named above as forming singulatives
out of collectives and plurals are essentially diminutive; e.g. : -
cenllysgen < cenllysg
ysgawen < ysgaw
aderyn < adar
colyn < col

For the idea of being named as belonging to a group
or species suggests inferiority or incompleteness.

For the same reason the name of an article formed
out of mass or material readily suggests a diminutival
sense; e.g.: —

cosyn < caws
euryn < aur

Some diminutives are but indirectly related to the
primary words; e.g.: -

corsen, a reed < cors, a marsh.
tywysen, an ear of corn < tywys, ears of corn (lit.
leading, to lead).

Compare English ‘nestling' (< nest), a little nest bird.

 
(delwedd L1324) (tudalen 065)

 
DIMINUTIVES
65
2.—DIMINUTIVES AND PET NAMEs.—The sense of
diminution passes readily into that of—
(a) endearment on the one hand, and
(b) depreciation or detraction on the other ; e.g.—
(a) branos :
" Gwahard wynt y wrth vy mranos."—Mab. 154.
(Forbid them to worry my little crows.)
(b) dynos :
" E(lrych Ile gwelych y gwaelion ddynos,
Yt' o gas agos dygasogion."—W. Middleton.
The primary force of the suffix may be lost altogether,
and the derivative have the power of the word from
which it is formed. ' Bachgen ' not infrequently denotes
a youth, without special reference to age, so much so
that ' ieuanc ' is often added to differentiate the younger
members of the class.
The suffixes ' -c ', -g' English -Ck in bullock,
hillock), and ' I ' ( = English le in bramble, dribble), have
completely lost their original force in Welsh, and the
suffix -an in Irish has nearly arrived at the same mean-
ingless stage. ' Rhisgl ' has the same force as ' rhisg' ;
' awdl ' (e: Lat. ' odula ') is no more diminutive than the
English ode, its cognate without the l. So the I in
' tymestl ' Lat. ' tempestas ') is purely formal.
3.—The COMMONEST DIMINUTIVE SUFFIXES in Welsh are
-an, Zen, -yn ; -ell ; -es ; -i, -ig ; -o, -og ; -ach, -iach ; -os

 
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  66 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY I.—SINGULAR -an (compare Irish an, always masculine, as loc, a lake, dim. loc-an, a small lake). A doublet of both -yn (masc.) and -en (fem.), and therefore of the same gender as the word to which it is afflxecl ; e.g.— Dyn (now usually masc., but in Mediæval Welsh masc. or fem.) > dyn-an, m.f., a little Person. feminine it is a term of endearment :— " Ni bu ddynan fechan fach, Os mul hi, ysmalhaeach."—D. ab G. XLII. 9—10. When masculine it conveys the added sense of pity or contempt " Ar hyn dyma bedwar o rai moelion ereill yn llusgo dynan at y Cwsc. Sometimes added to words of foreign origin, as spel-an English ' spell '); awr-an Latin ' hora '). " Ar bob allawr yr awran Y gwneir cost O'r gwin a'r can." Dafydd Nanmor. Other examples of this suffl.x are— hun-an (e-< hun < un, one). oen-an. -en < Celtic -ina, and therefore feminine daearen < daear.

 
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  DIMINUTIVES 67 " O ddaiaren na orchguddia di fyng-waed." I.lyvyr Job 38. cors-en < cors, a bog, marsh. pel-en < PCI. The -en in cywen < cyw (compare English ' chick-en ' < ' cock ') has been mistaken for the plural suffix, as ychen < ych. Hence a further diminutive suffix has been added—' cywenen ', ' c'wenen '. In ' bachgen ' -en is masculine, unless this word is a back formation from ' bechgyn ' (Cf. pabell < pebyll). -yn < Celtic -inos, and therefore masculine. In Irish, diminutives in ' -in ' are of the same gender as the nouns from which they are derived. The ' y ' of ' yn ' affects or mutates the vowel of the preceding syllable. Hence— tennyn < tant rhefiyn < rhaff defnyn < dafn It is added to the plural in— dynion-yn, a paltry fellow ; grugionyn, ant. Fal y gwnaeth y grugionyn A'r ceiliog rhywiog rhedyn." D. ab G. c,XC11. 3—4. -ell : Generally, in words of Latin origin, feminine, with the exception of— castell, cawell, porchell.

 
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  68 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY Examples bachell < bach, a nook ; compare ' cilfach ' : " Islaw hyn, yr oedd bachell swrth." Bardd Cwsc 104. cronell; hunell. a nap; Ilinell; priddell, a clod, tile ; pibell ; rhonell, a tail ; iyrchell (e: iwrch), a young roc. f. baches, a little girl. Ilonges a little shift. i = English -y, -ie, as Peggy, birdie. Examples Beti, Cadi : " Gwyddost, Gadi deg wiwddyn, Lyfr Ofydd mewn glasw$dd glyn." D. ab G. cxcrx. Dani; Ifi Ifan); Pegi. -ig, or rather -i-g, for here we are probably dealing with a double suffix. Feminine, e.g :— can lg oenig orig cån. oen. awr. o: Generally a suffix of•endearment, 1. In proper names :— Beto < Bet = (Eliza)beth. Bilo < Bil = William. Crallo, as in Llangrallo in Glamorgan. Deio < Dai = Dafl Dafydd.

 
(delwedd L1328) (tudalen 069)

  DIMINUTIVES 69 Gweao < Gwen (cognate with Latin ' Venus ' ), whence Gwendolen, Gwenliwyfar, etc. Ifano and lanto < Ifan. Llelo < Llewelyn. 1010 < 101 — — lor(werth). 2. Also in— bodo, a term used in North Cardiganshire for ' modryb ' , < bod < mod(ryb). The inter- change of ' m ' and ' b ' is very common in Welsh. Compare ' modrwy ' for ' bodrwy bawd, a thumb). dic-o, a chicken. dyn-o, a mannikin. -og, or rather -o-g, feminine. Compare Irish -og (fem.), as, gabal, a fork : gabalog, a small fork. Example pwtog, a little woman. ll.—SINGULAR OR PLURAL -ach, -iach : In the singular always suggesting contempt or reproach, and generally so in the plural : bwbach dodrefnach poblach Ill.—PLURAL cleiriach dynionach rhedyniach chwantach plantach -os : Often suggesting endearment : bechgynnos dynionos teios cynos, small dogs, puppies gwlithos plantos wynos Added to the singular in, branos, little crows ; dynos.

 
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  70 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY 4.—DIMINUTIVE SUFFIXES ARE OFTEN COMBINED : This is done generally to give a fuller and more em- phatic expression to the idea of diminution and the concomitant colour of either affection or contempt ; e.g. from ' bach ' : bych-an-ig-yn " O doi i fedwgell bellach, Fy nyn bychanigyn bach."—D. ab G. .xcl. bach-ig-yn (' bychanigyn ' in some editions of the Bible) : " Oblegid ychydig bachigyn etto, a'r hwn sydd yn dyfod a ddaw."—Hebrews x. 37. bych-an-ig : " Tri anferthwch gwledd ; meddwdod, ymrysonau, a chrochwerthin arn ben bychanigion o chweiniau."—Trioedd Doethineb. bach-g-en-yn : " A thithau fachgennyn a elwir yn brophwyd i'r Goruchaf."—Luke i. 76. Sometimes a second suffix is added in consequence of the complete loss of the diminutival sense in the first. Compare ' -I-et ' and ' -k-in ' in English, and ' -c-ulum ' in Latin. Examples : bach-g-en brig-I-yn (plu. brig-I-ach) hurth-g-en Iloer-c-en ffwl-c-yn Ilip-r-yn (r < l, by dissimilation) penllor-c-an tal-c-en

 
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  DIMINUTIVES DOUBLETS are not uncommon : 71 a wran Beto, Beti Bili cynos chwechan dynan dynionos Ilongan, Ilonges 1010 pibell priddellan wynos and orig Betsan Bilo cwnach chwechyn dynyn dynionach Ilongig Iolyn pi ben priddellig wyniach Of course, differentiation of meaning is a common accompaniment of doublet forms; thus ' dynyn ' is masculine only, while ' dynan ' may refer to male or female.

 
(delwedd L1331) (tudalen 072)

  CHAPTER V ADJECTIVES l. GENDER.—ln Brythonic the gender of an adjective was indicated by its termination, the masculine ending in '-os,' and the feminine in ' -a'; eg Brythonic : vindos trummos Modern Welsh : gwyn trwm vinda trumma gwen trom Now, final ' -a ' of the Brythonic or Romano-British period mutates or infects an old 'i' ( —modern ' y ') and ' n' (=modern ' w of a preceding syllable into ' -e- ' and -o- ' respectively. Hence Latin ' manica ' becomes ' maneg ' in Welsh, and Latin ' purpura' > ' porphor.' Similarly— Brythonic catta vinda > Mod. cath wen. alta trumma > allt drom. In Mediæval and Modern Welsh the terminations -os and -a are lost, but the infection caused by the -a re- mains, so that the rule has to be restated thus : Adjectives form their feminine by a change of the internal vowel : 72

 
(delwedd L1332) (tudalen 073)

ADJECTIVES  73

y > e as llym - llemw > o as hwn - hon

One word apparently changes ' i ' into ' ai,' viz. —braith (f.)brith (m.)

but it is only another instance of the effect of -a uponthe -i-, coupled with a diphthongization familiar inWelsh.

In Brythonic the forms would be —bricta (f.)  - brictos (m.)

  Now -ict of the Romano-British period passes into ' -ith ' in Welsh ; e.g.— Lat. benedictio > maledictio > and Brythonic brictos > On the other hand, ' bricta ' ' brecta ', and brecta > > with which compare— I—at. perfecturn> > defectum > > W. bendith W. melldith W. brith would be infected into Med. Mod. Med. Mod. Med. Mod. W. breith W. braith W. perfteith W. periTaith W. diffeith W. diffaith The infection of the internal vowel is confined to the 'ingular, for the open ' -a ' that governed the change

 
(delwedd L1333) (tudalen 074)

  74 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY was itself modified in the plural into a closer non- infecting sound. We may illustrate this important point from words of Latin origin: The sound-change from i to a in ' manica ' is great, and while the very close i is articu- lated, the organs of speech are being partially adjusted for the coming open a, with the result that ' i ' acquires the timbre or value of the intermediate sound ' e.' Hence Lat. manica > W. maneg and asina > W. asen On the contrary, ' bresych,' strictly speaking, comes not from ' brassicca,' which would give us ' brasech,' but from the plural ' brassiccae,' for ' -ae ' has a much closer sound than ' a' ; and the change from ' i ' to ' ae ' is sufficiently easy not to involve any assimilation of the former. Hence the adjective ' gwyn ' is thus declined : Sing. M. gwyn F. gwen Plural M. gwymon (Note that ' y in the diphthong 'wy ' is not infected : Masc., ' twym ' ; Fem., ' twym 2.—Even in the singular the infection is rapidly dis- appearing, and the masculine swrth is as freely used as sorth, with a feminine noun. But in the case of hwn and its compounds hwnna and hwnnw

 
(delwedd L1334) (tudalen 075)

  ADJECTIVES 75 the change of the vowel is imperative, e.g. ' y gwr hwn ' y wraig hon never ' y wraig hwn ' 3.—Similarly for the PLURAL. Whereas the tendency is to use the singular form with plural as well as singular nouns, hwn, hwnna, and hwnnw are never allowed for the plural. The persistency of grammatical inflections in the demonstrative is singularly illustrated in English : while every other adjective is now indeclinable, this and that must be inflected for number : Sing. this that Plural these those In Mediæval Welsh and in the poets the vowel change in the feminine of adjectives is much more strictly observed than in modern prose ; e.g.— " Gwarant modrwy a mantell, A gwerdd wisg a urddai well."—D. ab G. x. " Ni bu, dref sorth tan orthrech, Fy nhrem, am Gaersalem, sech." G. O. Hiraeth am Fön. ll.—COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. Welsh has four degrees of comparison :— The Positive, as, teg, gwyn, (la. The Comparative (Proper), as, tecach, gwynnach,

 
(delwedd L1335) (tudalen 076)

  76 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY The Comparative of Equality (or The Equal, or Equative), as, teced, gnvynned, cystal. The Superlative, as, tecaf, gwynnaf, goreu. 1. COMPARATIVE.—The termination in a regular ad- jective is 'ach' * Breton ' o'ch '), as ' teg ', ' tec- ach '. There is evidence also of another comparative u ', m some suffix corresponding to Old Irish ' iu ', irregular adjectives, e.g.— W. hén > h$n bach > llai. bec > laigiu. O. Ir. sen > siniu 2. THE EQUAL DEGREE OR COMPARATIVE OF EQUALITY. —This is peculiar to Welsh. It enters into many idio- matic constructions. It is formed by adding ' -ed ' to the positive, as— teg sych tec - ed. sych - ed. — cyflym - ed. cyflym -ius ' of Latin and the -er' of From Aryan iso, whencethe -ior,' English. The change of the vowel-flanked s into the aspirate is regular in Welsh. Initially, when not followed by cc, it is the simple spirant, e.g. — haul , cognate with Latin, sol llafren hesp English, Severn Latin, siccus Finally, it is a guttural spirant : fllach, cf. English, flash fflwch mach

 
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  flush oh Latin, vas ADJECTIVES 77 This ' -ed ' is the abstract noun suff1X ' -ed ' seen in ' colled ', ' tynged ' syched ', ' hoced'; and in verb- nouns, as ' gweled • , ' yfed ', and is the same as the Latin ' -itas ' in ' civitas ', whence Welsh ' ciwed ' :— " Weithon nyt oes dyrnued yn y 130. (Now it is not a hand in (its) height.) " Ac yn 01 hynny goueileint a delis yndaw o garnhet idaw attal y mab gantaw."—Mab. 22. " A chan aruthret vu gan Arthur a chan Owein uch ben yr wydbwyll klybot y kynnwryf." Mab. 156. Fangau graen fyngau o gred, Fwngial rhag ei ap G. CLXI. ' A Duw, gan hyfryted oedd, Dywedai mai da ydoedd." Gor. Owen, y Calan. The transition from an abstract noun to an adjective is easy, as may be seen from the above quotations. 3.—CYN WITH THE COMPARATIVE.—In composition, where actual comparison is made, a form in ' -ed ' is preceded by the adverb cyn, as— " Ac ef a allei uot yn gyn digriuet ymi or hela ac udunt wynteu."—Mab. 247. " Ac nid allascnt chwaith ddysgwyl y buasai eu hathrawiaeth byth yn cyrhaedd cyn belled." Ed. Samuel 41.

 
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  78 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY In Mediæval Welsh ' cyn ' kyn ') is occasionally written ' cy ' ky '); e.g.— ' Pa achaws y ducpwyt ky ieuanghet ygkyghor gwyr kyvurd ar rei racko."—Mab. 160. " Or byd neb ky ehofnet ac amwyn y gorvlwch hwnn a mi, a dial sarhaet gwenhwyfar, cleuet ym 01 yr weirglod a mi ae harhoaf yno."—Mab. 197. It should be noted, however, that ' ky ' in these and like examples found in mediæval literature is to be read as ' ky•n ', cyn ', just as ' Ilogeu ' is pronounced ' Ilon- geu '. The mediæval scribe, for economy of time and writing material, adopted certain abbreviations which would be familiar enough to his readers, but were occa- sionally misread later. Thus before g, it was customary to write n in a curve or straight line over the preceding vowel, and if a word was sufficiently familiar the was often left out altogether ; e.g., ' Ilong ' was written ' llög and ' Ilog ', but was always supposed to be articulated as ' Ilong ' ' n ' was sometimes dropped elsewhere, Ac arveu tnvrn rytlyt dielw estronawl ymdanaw ac ymda y 254.

CYN AND CAN. — Dr. Silvan Evans, in his monumental Welsh Dictionary, under  ‘Cyn' writes: “Since the early part of the present (i.e. 19th) century it has been usual with some writers (following Pughe) to substitute can for cyn in this sense, a practice much to be deprecated, as can does not imply any comparison which cyn (with its

 
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ADJECTIVES 79

varieties — cy-. cyd-, cym-, cys-) does. This perverteduse of can is unknown in the older language."

The last statement is not quite correct. ‘Can' occursoccasionally in l.lythyrau Goronwy Owen, e.g. —

“Mae fel y byddwch gan fwyned ag ymwrando amoffeiriadaeth i mi erbyn Calanmai."

Llythyrau, 144.

“Gan wiried.” Ibid. 62.“Gan faned.” -97; etc.

And frequently in the letters of the Morusiaid, e.g.vol. 1. p. 258: -

   . i Wilym Parri yntau " Gan fod yn rhyngu INVId . fod gan fwyncd a gyrru am ychydig hadau," etc. The use of ' can ' in this connection by eighteenth- century writers was an extension of a function of the word common in media•val and modern literature. Thus the phrase— gan mwyaf, the most part. is quite common. So gan ' with substantival forms in '-ed gan aruthret (v. above). And again as a conjunction in— gan fwyned oedd. Nor is gan as an adverb an impossible form :

 
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 (tudaten 079) 80 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY Probably the adverb ' cyn ' is in origin the same as the preposition ' can ' (Cornish ' cans ', ' gans Breton gant '). The preposition has an accent of its own, but when used with the comparative of equality it is a proclitic, and through the absence of an accent the ' a ' readily changes into the more obscure ' y ' sound. But when Dr. Silvan Evans deprecates the use of ' can ' for ' cyn ' he has the unanimous support of all Welsh scholars of the present day. ' Can ' ( = ' cyn ') in the pre-Pughean period is rare, and limited to a few writers. Moreover, attaching two functions to can, where cyn has been clearly specialized for one of them, leads to confusion, and is contrary to the movement in the direc- tion of differentiation of usage which marks the growth of all languages. ' Cyn ' is sometimes written as a prefix to the form in ' -ed ' ; e.g.— cymhelled = cyn belled. " Ond gan na (Idichon nerth dyn gyrhaedd cymhelled. ... Er bod ei drigfan cymhelled O'r tu isaf iddynt." Edw. S. Il. In ' cyfuwch ' it is added to the comparative proper : " A pheis o pali melyn ymdanaw yn gy/uch a mein y esceir."—Mab. 154. But usually when ' cyn ' in this function is prefixed, it is to a noun, not to an adjective ; e.g.— kymryt = cyn -+- pryd, form, beauty, " A hyspys oed gan owein na welsei ef eiryoet gwreic kymryt a hi beyt uei ar y ffuryf 175.

 
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  ADJECTIVES 81 cynddrwg, cynrwg < drwg evil. " Kanys kyndrwc dy wybot heb hi ac nas dywedy ymi mi ae gouynnaf idaw ehun."—Mab. 248. cystal < cys + tål payment; etc. 4.—The comparative Of equality is followed by ag, a ; but if it is qualified by a numeral higher than un, the function of the phrase is naturally that of a comparative proper, and na, nag are sometimes used instead of a, ag :— Y pedwar cymmaint na'r waith gyntaf." l). y P.O. 99. 5.—Equal forms in ' -ed ' are often used without ' cyn ' in exclamatory sentences to express the possession of a quality in a superlative degree ; e.g.— " Pa nesa yr awn atti mwyfwy y rhyfeddwn uched, gryfed a hardded, laned a hawddgared oedd pob rhan o honi. gywreinied y gwaith a chariadused y defnyddieu."—Bardd Cwsc 45. 6.—By careless articulation ' cymaint ' sometimes ap- pears as ' y maint.' Compare— 'Y fi ' for ' myfi,' and ' Y Fenni ' for ' Gavenni ' or ' Gavenny.' " Ac o hynny y bu y meint goruot a uu y wyr ynys y 40. No doubt the Definite Article in this construction was seen to be unidiomatk. Hence the not infrequent use

 
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  82 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY of the simple ' maint' ( < y maint < cymaint) ; e.g.— Ac wrth hynny y mae iawn medylyaw meint cabyl y gristawn na wassanaetho yn ufyd ar achenogyon Crist."—Ystorya 15. " Hawdd ganddo wylo wrth y bobl faint yw eu cam gan ddrwg swyddogion yn eu gorthrymmu." Bardd Cwsc 15. " Er maint o anrhegion . . . ag oedd efe a'i wyr wedi eu derbyn, etto efe a fynnai gael Dinas Gaerog dan ei lywodraeth."—D. y P.O. 99—100. 7.—Mention may be made here of an idiomatic use of cymaint ' in the phrase ' CYMAINT UN' ' for every one ; e.g. " Ac ual ydoedynt ac eu gwrthr•.'lll ueicheu gantunt dyuot udunt brenhin cordibi . . . ac eu llad kymeint un."—Ystorya 16. Ond chwithau hefyd cymmain un, felly cared pob un o honoch ei wraig fel ef ei hunan." Ephesians v. 32. " Ac ymwan hwnt gymain' hyn, Ba nerth na bai wan wrthyn' ? Tudur Aled," Marwnad Owain ap Meurig. " Sef y dywedasant gymmain un a llais a Ilef mal o ."—lolo MSS. 185. un genau 8.—ADJECTIVES IN ' -B , - ' ' D ', ' -G.'—The superlative suffix ' -af ' stands for Old Welsh ' -ham Thus in the

 
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  ADJECTIVES 83 Cornish glosses (v. Rhys's Welsh Philology 231) ' hynaf' appears as ' hinham ' (Gl. Ox. B 45a), and ' ieuaf ' ieuhaf ' in Mab. 193. This suffix is cognate with ' -sim-us ' in Latin, the h in Welsh being the regular representative of older s, as ' haul ' (Lat. ' sol '). Hence ' I-had ' in the superlative would be ' rhaclhaf ', whence ' rhataf ' by a regular change of dh into t, with which we may compare ' ateb ' from ' ad-heb.' Simi- larly ' teghaf ' would pass into ' tecaf ', and ' gwlyb- haf' into ' gnvlypaf '. The equal degree shows the same hardening, prob- ably due to the development Of an accentual h before the accent retreated to the new penult ; e.g. teg-héd ' > téc-ed compare the form ' dahet ' (later ' daed ') :— " Gorawenu a wnaeth ynteu wrth decket yr eur, a dahet gweith y kawc."—Mab. 50. The provection of the soft mutes ' -b -g ' in the comparative proper is much later,* and is due to the analogy of the equal and superlative degrees ; the comparison of ' teg ' was formerly— Positive teg Equal teced C omparalive Superlative tegach tecaf " A gwedy bot yn degach genthi kymryt y phenyt noc ymdaeru ar gwraged y phenyt a gymerth." Mab. 19. " Gwell gwr a phenedigach yth wna." Mab. 195. • Uxc. : Hyfrytach a llawenach y kerdawt 291.

 
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  84 WEISH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY " Ni weles neb wyneb iach Drud fydd deigr, nid oedd degach."—D. ab G. For the approximate phonetic equivalence of ' t ' and ' dh 'c' and ' gh ' p ' and ' bh ' we may adduce the following facts :— (a) Their use is allowed in ' cynghanedd '— " Golwg teg fydd gweled hyn."—D. ab G. Vlll. ' Wych nwy teg, a chenadhau."—Ed. Morus, y Paen. (b) The nasal mutation of ' p ' t ', ' c' is the same as that of ' b ', ' d ' g ', with an added h ; that is, e.g.— Hence has approximately the value of bh. When the accent is moved away, the h can no longer be separately sounded, and the work of representing the value of the two is thrown entirely upon the mute, which is therefore provected into p, as— gwlyb-hed' > gwlyp'-ed teg-hed' > tec'-ed 9.—ADJECTIVES ENDING IN SONANT MUTE + LIQUID : As in the case of final ' -b -g', so, if an adjective ends in 'b', 'd', or 'g', plus '-l', ' as 'abl ' hyawdl ', ' hagr ', ' dygn ', the soft mute is provected; e.g.— " A meuyl ymi heb ef or deny di yma yny wy'l)ych di a golleis i vy nerthoed yn ky gwt61et ac y dywedy 269.

 
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  ADJECTIVES 85 " Yno . . . y magwyt pryderi . . . yny oed deledi- waf gwas a theckaf a chw,$la/ o bop camp da." Mab. 25. " Ny dodes dyn y araf yndaw yg katgamlan rac y 108. " Mi ofnais y gallei gastie' bulrach na rheini fod yn agos."—B. Cwsc 24. " Either Erasmus Roterodamus yr athro dyscedickaf, huotlaf, ac awdurusaf yn Cred 011, or a fu in oes ni ac ys llawer oes or Pen 8. " Am hynny Gochel meddaf, fel dymma'r dyddiau diwaethaf dyrrysaf y T. A. 264. For the change of sonant + liquid -F h, into surd + liquid, we may compare— cwpla < cwblhau ; dyffryn < dyfrhynt. Examples of the absence of provection, though rare, do occur chwidrach : " Odid y canfu adyn Chwidrach anwadalach dyn."—G. Owen 2. dygnach • " Eithr fe'n dysgir i ymbil yn ddygnach ac yn fwy difrifol am y pethau a berthyn i fywyd trag- ywyddol."—Edw. Samuel 52.

 
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  86 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY mo.—Comparative 4- an old abl. case : The student of Latin knows that ' quam ' (=Eng. than, Welsh ' na ', ' nag' ; old Irish ' 01 ', ' inda ') may often be omitted, the noun with which the comparison is made being put in the ablative case—called ablative of comparrson. A parallel construction whereby 01 or inde may be omitted is not uncommon in ()ld the dative of the name of the compared object being used instead : " Ni diliu nech limm alailiu hygarach neb imi (nag) arall." In Middle Irish the accusative is used in the same way : " It låathidir gåith p-erraig." (They are swifter than a spring gale.) Rare examples of the same construction are found in Welsh ; e.g. ' bellach hynny '— " A unbenn heb hi nac ewch bellach hynny mi a dygaf bop un o honawch hyt y 23. . chwaethacli : " Ni allassom-mi ymhellach geisio cyngor gan gnawd a gwaed, chwaethach gwneuthyr y peth oedd Fycld 182. It is the usual construction with ' chwaethach ' , which however is occasionally accompanied by ' na ' " Ni ddyle gwyr doethion duwiol mor rhyfeddu . • See Windisch's Old Irish Grammar.

 
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  ADJECTIVES 87 fod yn well gennym aros gartref, a rhoi'r cwbl ar Dduw, chwaethach na chymeryd hirdaith arnom."—Deff Ffydd 163. ll.—WELSH SUPERLATIVE—ENGLISH COMPARATIVE : When that with which the comparison is made is not formally stated, the superlative is used in Welsh, where English would require the comparative ; e.g.— Eng. He is the younger. Welsh. Efe yw'r ieua/. Out of this use of the superlative there arises a diffl- culty not experienced in English ; e.g.= John Jones Junior is John Jones leuaf, though he may not be the youngest. A son who is neither the eldest nor the youngest may be referred to in English as ' a younger son ' ; but such use of the comparative is not allowed in Welsh. In Genesis ix. 24, where Shem, Ham, and Japheth, sons of Noah, are referred to, Ham is mentioned as ei fab ieuangaf." 12.—COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES FROM NOUNS : The substantival origin of the equal degree has already been referred to. There are instances of adjectives in the comparative proper and superlative formed from nouns : ' Iletach '

 
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  88 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY and ' Iletaf ' are from ' Iled ', width, not ' llydan ', wide ; diweddaf' is from ' diwedd ', end; and ' pennaf ', with the rarer ' pennach ', are from ' pen head, top : " Ny ddarostwng y welh neu bennach noc Cf." V n y Lhyvyr Hwnn. The following belong to a more doubtful class : angeuach ; amserach; dewisach, dewisaf ; gogleddaf ; gwraf ; ingaf ; Ilesach; rheitied, rheitiach ; aniieiliach ; penaduriaf ; elwach ; cywilyddiach ; arfaf ; for while they may be referred to pure nouns (angeu, amser, etc.), they may equally wen be from the positive adjectives in ' -01 ' (the last two in ' -us ' and ' -og ' respectively). For the dropping of ' -01 ' compare— rhagorol rhagored. rhagorach Examples of their use :— angeuach : rhagoraf " Mi a dodaf teir diaspat ar drws y porth hwnn, hyt na bo agheuach ympenn Pengwaed yng kernyw." Mab. 103—4. amserach : " A phan vu amserach kymryt hun no chyvedach y gyscu yd 6 ; compare 217. ani/eiliach : O ffoliaid difedr a chawciod ynfyd ac anifeiliach na chynffon yr asen yr hon a gusanent, a gredent y pethau hyn ! "—Ed. James : Hom. 11. 108.

 
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  ADJECTIVES ar/a/, from ' arf' (v. Silvan, s.v.) : 89 " Difai Ion erfai arfaf ei ganmawl."—M.A. 1. 461. cywilyddiach : Canys beth sydd anghyiiawnach a chywilyddiach na Chospi pobl am ladd un neu ddau, ac ym- ffrostio a gorfoleddu am ladd miloedd, megyS rhyw orchest ogoneddus ? "—Edw. Sam. 53. dewisach, ' preferable ' : " Dial I)uw arnaf heb hi onyt dewissach gennyf vy agheu oe law ef noc o law neb."—Mab. 270. dewisa/: " Dewisaf, gan Nat, i ni Oedd ddeisyf iddi oesi." G. O. Cywydd Marged Morus. elwach : " O Dduw cyfoeth doeth wyt ti ; Ond oedd elwach d'addoli." Caniadau Prof. Morris Jones. " Y Ile gogleddaf agos yn Nghymru." Llythyrau G.O. 80. gwra/ : " Gwraf edlin brenhinwawr Blaenllin Cymru iyddin fawr ? " G. O. Cywydd i Dywysog Cymru. haeach : " Y bwa ni bo iach A der dau hanner ab G. ccvll. ' Hyn a allaf ei ddywedyd yn IIS' am dano na chlywais erioed haiach well • pregethwr, na rnwynach G. O. 36.

 
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  90 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY inga/ : " Pa gryfach gadarnach dau I'r ingaf arwr Angau ? " G. O. y Cryfion Byd. Ilesach : " Arhoaf yn llawen heb hi ac oed Ilessach yr march pei ass acrhut yr meittyn."—Mab. 11. Penaduria/ : " Ac 0 iawn dylyet y gossodet ruuein yn bennadur- yaf eistedua ebystyl."—Ystorya 25. rheitied : " Mae cyn rheitied i ni ag i bobl ereill fedru rhoddi rheswm am y gobaith sydd ynom."—Ed. S. XVII. rheiliach : " le, le, eb yr angel, cedwch eich dagreu at rywbeth rheitiach."—Bardd Cwsc 28. " Nid rheidiach i'rn byd rhydeg Rhoi rhactal am y tål teg."—D. ab G. cc„V11. Here should be mentioned such phrases as ' bore wawr ' and angau loes ', if ' bore' and ' angau ' stand for ' boreol ' arigeuol ' by back formation from ' boreuach ', ' angeuach ' On the other hand, they may be mere imitations of the common English construction seen in ' morning light ', ' death pang etc. A third explanation is possible: ' bore ' and ' angau may be in the Genitive Case deliendent on ' wawr ' and ' loes ', though the genitive in Welsh regularly follows the noun upon which it depends.

 
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  ADJECTIVES 13.—ADJECTIVES > ADVERBS : 91 Some adjectives in the Comparative Degree have ac- quired a special adverbial function : bellach < pell, with initial softening common in ad- verbial expressions; as, ' ddoe ' from ' doe It means al length, now at last. hytrach < hydr, strong, brave, confident. It means rather, somewhat. hwyrach < hwyr, late. It means may be, Perhaps. rnwyach < mwy < mawr. Therefore in form a double comparative. chwaethach * < gwaeth (by provection of gw > chw) < drwg. Therefore, like ' mwyach ', a double com- parative; e.g.— ' Llawer o wyrion, chwaethach plant." Morris Letters 1. 244. (Many grandchildren, not to mention children.) hwyach : a double comparative from ' hir ' : " Ni fu hwyach ganddo na myned i'w gyfarfod." Demetian. 14.—Many adjectives show irregularity of form or usage Daed : The usual equal degree of ' da is ' cystal ', but the more regularly formed ' daed ' has the sanction of some of the best Welsh classics ; e.g.— < chwaith.—Dr. Silvan Evans.

 
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  92 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY " Gorawenu a wnaeth ynteu wrth decket yr eur, a dahet gweith •y 50. Y ddiod fedd ddüed ap G. XXIII. " Mynych iawn y mudant, heb fedru fawr aros yn y naill gan ddaed ganddynt dywysoges stryd arall."—B. C. ' Daed ', compound of ' da it ', should not be con- fused with this; e.g.— " Ac ni chanaf a'm tafod, Yn neutu glyn, Ond dy glod ! I'th ganmol ferch urddol waed— Dy wedd !—Dös a dyddiau daed." D. ap G. c,XC1. hynach and (an)hawsach : Double comparatives common in colloquial Welsh, but of rare occurrence in literature : hynach : " Y mae yn ein mysc ni hén, ac oedrannus hefyd ; anhawsach sach . hynach o oedran na'th dåd ti." Llyvyr Job Ch. xv. : " Y n gwneuthur llawer o bethau anhaw- . . nag oedd orchymynedig yn y ddeddf." Ed. Samuel, G. y G. G. 80. hawsaf is a superlative on a comparative base : " Kyrchwn loeger hawssa/yw yni ymborth yno." Mab. 52.

 
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  ADJECTIVES 93 " Na wn i heb yr owein namyn y gyueir y myn- nych ac y bo hawssa/ gennyt dos."—Mab. 293. hawsed, like ' gnvaethed ', has its ' -ed ' added to the comparative form :—anhawsset. Mab. 282. Cymaint and Cynifer : Strictly speaking ' cymaint ' should refer to quantity, while ' cynifer' denotes number. Still, ' cymaint ' by looseness of construc- tion is sometimes used as the comparative of ' llawer ' (many); e.g.— " Y rhai a hynododd Duw drwy gymmaint o wyrthiau."—Deff Ffydd. And frequently in D. y P.O. llawer : The superlative is the substantival phrase, y rhan fwyaf ' , or the prepositional phrase, ' gan rnwyaf ; e.g.— " A gadu y pyscawt yn noeth a meirw vyd eu kan 241. uwch : ' w ' is excrescent, and is due to the glide of the tongue in passing from the ' u ' to the ' ch ' posi- tion. Compare media•val ' awch ', a doublet of ' ych ', your, and the ' u ' before ' gh ' in English ' bought ', ' thought ', etc u The ' w' generally disappears when another syllable is added ; e.g.— buwch lluwch buchod lluchio Hence ' uched ' is better than ' uwched ', and ' uchaf ' than ' uwchaf '. W ' was very rare even

 
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  94 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY in the comparative of this word in mediæval literature, the regular form being ' uch ' ; e.g.— ' Uch penn y 216. " Ac uch oed y diaspat noc a oed o dyn a chorn yn y llu."—Mab. 175• " gwyd gogyfuch " = trees of equal height. Mab. 163. Note that the form ' ogyfuuch ' occurs in— " Acyn dyvot yn ogyfuuch ar 8. iawn in Mediæval Welsh is fully compared :— iawnach : " A iawnach yw kerdet velly." Mab. 236. iawnetc " Pei gwyput ti iawnct itt chware ac eisted y gyt ar gwr hwnnw nyt eistedut ac ny 235. " lawnaf y gwnaf i heb yr Arthur, iawnaf : mynet y hela ef auory yn ieuenctit y dyd." Mab. 245. 15.—The following are no longer in common use :— hydyr: " A phann welei y iarll ae niver marchawc y llamhystaen yn hydyr."—Mab. 254. And its superlative— ' A phan vei hyttraf gereint y lla- hyttraf (hytraf) : wenhaei y gwr gwynllwyt ae wreic ae 255.

 
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  ADJECTIVES 95 newyddach : " Ac ny bu newydach gantunt y dyvodyat no chynt."—Mab. 6. ambellach, comparative of ' ambell ' : " Ac na fychanom neb am fod ei ddoniau ef yn ambellach na'n doniau ni." Edw. James, Hom. 111, 139. lléd, as comparative of ' llydan ' " [mae] ei fesur ef yn hwy na'r ddaiar : ac yn lléd na'r mör."—Llyfr. Job. ch. XI. Lledled rydau, waethwaeth ddeddfau." Ll. y T. A. 184. 16.—THE SYNTHETIC AND THE ANALYTIC METHODS OF COMPARISON .—The growing use of the analytic method of denoting comparison is very noticeable in modern writings. In Mediæval Welsh cyn + Equal degree was the all but invariable method of expressing that degree in con- struction; e.g. " Ac wynt yn un vam un dat, ac yn un dylyet, ac yn gyn dewret, ac yn gyndecket, ac yn gynhaelet." Bruts. 72. " A dpvedut pa wed y gellit dwyn mein kymeint ar rei hynny 0 le kynbellet a 167. Mor + positive was extremely rare, except in an exclamatory sense, = how very. The following is an example from the Mabinogion :—

 
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  96 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY " A gwledychu o honaw yno mor lwydyannus a dwyn y dwy deyrnas yn un drwy y dewred ef ae vil- wryaeth y diffyg»vys y enw ef ar pwyll penn- deuic In sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth century writings this construction gained ground, though most writers felt it to be the exception,* and even to-day the more idiomatic cyn + Equal degree has the better literary sanction. Again, ' mwy' and ' mwyaf' with the positive to express the comparative and superlative respectively is a characteristic of Modern Welsh. It was prac- tically unknown up to the middle of the fourteenth century. The gradual adoption of ' mor ' , ' mwy ', and ' mwy- af ', with adjectives is due to two influences :— (1) The tendency ('f all modern languages to become analytic. (2) The influence of (a) French aussi . and English as . . . . . que which helped on the use of ' mor ' in Welsh ; (b) French Plus le Plus and English more most and which secured the introduction of mwy ' and mwyaf ' into the corresponding constructions in Welsh. • Mor + positive is not uncommon in Def. Ffydd."

 
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  ADJECTIVES 97 That English played an important part in this develop- ment is evident. The use of more and most with the positive was due to French influence, and they therefore appear later in this röle than as . . . as. So in Welsh, while mor*- positive had gained early currency, ' mwy ' and ' mwyaf ' do not appear until after ' more ' and ' most ' came to be similarly used in English.

 
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  CHAPTER VI THE NUMERALS 1.—As in Breton, Welsh has two forms for two, three, and four, one masculine, the other feminine. ()ld Irish has three forms—masc., fem., and neuter. The names of the cardinal numbers for 1—20 : WELSH dau, m., dwy, f. tri, m. , tair, f. war, m. , pe- dair, f. pump ch wech saith wyth naw deg un-ar-d0eg deuddeg tri-ar-ddeg, m. , tair-ar-ddeg, f. pedwar-ar-ddeg,m. pedair-ar-ddeg, f.

 
(delwedd L1358) (tudalen 099)

  BRETON unan daou, f. diou tri, f. teir pévar, f. péder pemp c'houec'h sew, nab dék unnek daouzek trizék pévarzék OLD IRISH bin, oen då, f. di, n. clå n- tri, f. teoir, n. tri cethir, f. cetheoir, n. cethir c6ic, cfiic sé secht n- oct, ocht n- n6i n- deich n- déc or déac då... déac tri... deac cethir.. .déac THE NUMERALS WELSH pymtheg un-ar-bymtheg dau- (dwy-)ar- secht déac bymtheg deunaw ocht n-... déac pedwar-(pedair-) n6i n- .. .deac ar- bymtheg ugam 99 BRETON pemzék c 'houézek seiték triouec'h naönték ugent OLD IRISH cÖic.. .déac sé.. .déac fiche 2.—ELEVEN TO NINETEEN.—These seem to have been in Indo-Germanic expressed by copulative compounds, which are retained in Latin throughout (undecim . . . octodecim, etc), and in Breton, with the exception of which is multiplicative 3 X 6). The still re- maining forms, ' deuddeg ' and ' pymtheg ', show that the same copulative method once existed in Welsh. The rest have now vanished, owing to numbers beyond twenty being generally expressed by multiplication. The Aryan or Indo-Germanic system was decimal, but counting by scores must be very old, for we find it in Old Irish, where (e.g.) 40 is ' då fichit ' ( = 2 X 20) as well as ' cethorcha ', and similarly for 60, 80, 100. So in Breton and Welsh— BRETON 40 is daou-ugent 60 tri-ugent 70 „ dek ha tri-ugent 80 „ Pévar-ugent WELSH deugain tri-ugain, trugain, trigain deg a thrugain pedwar ugain • Deunaw for IS in Welsh is multiplicative.

 
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  100 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY and so on to ISO and beyond : 180 naou-ugent naw-ugam. In Liber Landavensis 40 is ' douceint ceint Compare also French— 60 soixante 70 soixante-dix 80 quatre-vingts 90 quatre-vingt-dix. 3.—NUMERAL + Noux : ' and 60 ' trlu Cardinal Numeral Adjectives are followed by the noun in the singular in Welsh, Cornish, and Breton ; Welsh : dau oleuad. Cornish : dew golow. Breton : diou c'houlaouen. Similarly in Irish— cead ceann (sg.) = W. can pen. It is necessary, however, at the outset to distinguish two co-existent constructions : I. That, so common in other languages, which does not allow the noun to be in the singular with a numeral higher than one. That this rule was operative in Welsh at one time is proved by the following sets of facts :—

 
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  THE NUMERALS 101 (a) In such expressions, as trywyr ; seithwyr ; deu- nawweis (Mab.), the noun is clearly not singular :— Edrychwch yn eich plith am seithwyr da eu gair." Acts vi. 3• (b) The soft mutation of the initial consonant of an adjective following a noun qualified by ' dau proves that the noun was at one time a vowel-ending dual : " Deu wydel 39—40. " Deuair deg."—D. ab G. CLXX. Cf. chapters on the Article, and Number in Nouns. Il. Another construction is much commoner in Modern Welsh, and it is usually formulated in some such rule as that given above, i.e. that the noun re- mains singular when qualified by a numeral ; as— tri dyn ; ugain niwrnod. When that construction is looked into more closely, its exceptional character may prove to be more apparent than real. If we assume the numeral to have been regularly or even frequently substantival, and therefore that the noun dependent upon it was in the Genitive Plural, the construction may be shown to be in line, after all, with that in use in other Aryan languages; for though a non-Aryan strain e.xists in Celtic syntax, it is the ex- ception rather than the rule, and we should hesitate to

 
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  102 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY refer to that source a strange feature which may prove to be merely a disguised variety of what obtains in other Aryan tongues. VSTat, then, is the evidence to support the above assumption ? (1) Welsh numerals are often treated as singular sub- stantives with collective meaning saith o fechgyn as well as saith bachgen, ugain o blant ugain plentyn. And the higher the numeral the more regular its use as a substantive. ' Mil ' and ' myrdd' are pure nouns ; e.g.— mil o wyr, not mil gwr. This is true of all Aryan languages, for we find in the earliest records of other members of the family such a construction as ' a ten of men ' side by side with ' ten men But some languages show a far greater prefer- ence than others for the former construction. Thus in Balto-Slavonic the word for ten is always a noun. never an adjective. It follows that the dependent noun would be in the Genitive Plural. (2) The forms diau ', days, and ' blynedcl years, used with numerals, are not the regular singular forms of the words. ' Dian ' is undoubtedly plural, and ' blynedd 'L has been similarly explained by eminent scholars like Zeuss and Ebel, though this view has been

 
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  THE NUMERALS 103 challenged in favour of the theory that ' blynedd ' is a variant form of ' blwyddyn ' Seith nieu a seith nos."—Brutieu 54. Fel y bu Jonas dridiau a thair nos ym mol y morfil, felly y bydd Mab y Dyn dridiau a thair nos ynghalon y xii. 40. ' Y ginyaw yn hardlech seith mlyned . . ar yspy- dawt benn pedwar ugeint mlyned."—Mab. 43. (3) The demonstratives are always plural in such constructions ; e.g.— " Y tair twysoges hyn."—Bardd Cwsc 11. And often the initial of the adjective is not softened, where a singular noun would require it : " Cerais un dyn cwrs hill-deg. Dan gariad y teirgwlad teg."—D. ab G. CLXX. And so in the familiar phrase : y tair blynedd diweddaf. (4) In Irish, if the noun following ' du ', two, is in the genitive, it will be in the Genitive Plural ; e.g.— ' IÄn a dä läm ' , the full o/ his two hands. (5) In Old English, hundred and thousand were always substantives governing the Genitive Case; and the other cardinal numerals were often similarly used ; e.g.— " Up ahof rihtes reniend Ihara roda twa."—Elene 880. (The minister of right raised two [0/1 roods.)

 
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  104 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY " Feower tida syndon on thærn geare, on thæm we oft agyltath."—Blick. Homilies 31. (There are four [of] times in the year in which we often sin.) Again, while the Nominative Plural of Old English ' föt ', foot, was ' fet ', its Genitive Plural was ' fota ', which passed into modern ' foot ' through the stages ' föte ', ' foot(e) '; so that in ' A two-foot rule ' foot is in appearance singular, whilst in reality it is Genitive Plural. (6) In Old Irish there is nothing to distinguish the Genitive Plural of many nouns from the Nominative Singular, except that in the genitive they eclipse the initial consonant Of the following noun. In Modern Irish the identity of form has become more general. These facts seem to me to afford a strong presumption in favour Of the theory formulated above—that the singular ' with numerals, other than one, is in many cases nothing but a Genitive Plural. \Vith the decay of inflections, and the consequently growing identity of form between this genitive and the singular, there was nothing to prevent the extension of the constructi•yn at the expense of the siml)le plural construction. NUMERA1.s.—Bob yn un; bob yn cl(lau ; etc.

 
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  THE NUMERALS 105 The introduction of ' yn ' is modern. In older Welsh the forms are—bob un ; bob dau; etc.; e g " Kyrnelleis y creulonyon geirw ar ffo ac ae Iledeis pop tri, pop 55. An idiom identical with the Old Irish— cach ben cach då cach tri singuli bini terni, etc. The introduction of ' yn ' obscures the syntax of the phrase ; in— bob dau ' bob' is a Distributive Adjective qualifying the nu- meral substantive ' dau '. But in bob yn (Idau ' bob ' is a substantive like ' bawb '—a function foreign to it everywhere else in Modern Welsh. yn' is predicative, and ' ddau' is a predicative numeral adjective qualifying ' bob '. + NUMERALS : The numeral locutions containing ' ill ' are somewhat peculiar : " A gwledychu y "'lat . Pump." Mab. 43. . ae rannu y ryngtunt ell " Ac yn hynny tyuu kedymdeithas y rygtunt yll pedwar 46.

 
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  106 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY The 'yll ' ell '—modern ' ill '—are merely weak- ened forms of ' 011 ', all. For the change of ' o ' to ' y ' we may compare ' ys ' for ' os ' in— ' ys ( = os) tég eu gwaith "—Bardd Cwsc 8, and the regular change of Brythonic or Latin ' ' into ' ' in Welsh; e.g.— cönsulor > cysuro. The interchange of ' y ' and ' e ' in originally un- accented syllables is seen in the doublets— ennill and ynnill esgar ysgar A parallel construction to this rise of ' 011 ' is found in French ; as— tous les deux, both. 6.—ORDINA1. NUMERALS. One idiomatic construction involving the use of the ordinals is attended by some ambiguity; e.g.— " Ar y ugeinuet or kewri," in Geoffrey's Brut. 58,* means, he along with twenly giants, for in the Latin ver- sion the words are " ille cum viginti gygantibus." This kind of phrase is rather common in Mediæval Welsh, and as the exact force of the worcls is not always as above, it may not be to quote two or three others in pt)int : (a) " Mi af ar vyn deudecuct. . uaethwy a degwyr gyt ac wynt — . Ef a aeth a gil- Mab. 60. • See Prof. Rhys's Introduction.

 
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  THE NUMERALS 107 Where ar vyn deudccuet must mean, I the twelfth, I and eleven others. (b) " Ymgyweiryaw a oruc teirnon ar y drydyd mar- . Sef ual - chawc, ar mab yn pedsyyryd gyt ac wynt. . yd eistedyssant. Teirnon y rwng pwyll a riannon a deu gedymdeith teirnon uch law pwyll ar mab y ryngtunt."— Mab. 23. Where, again, ar y drydyd marchawc clearly means, he and two other horsemen. (c) " Ac adaw seithwyr yn tywyssogyon yma, a chra- dawc uab bran yn bennaf ac eu seith marchawc. . . Sef seithwyr oedynt Cradawc uab bran. . . ." Mab. 35. (d) " Tygu or perchennawc ar y trydyd o wyr un vreint ac ef."—The I—aws, v. fo. 41 b. (The owner swearing with two o/ his peers.) A later instance, where the meaning is more in bar- mony with the quotation from the Brutieu, is : " Peth arall hefyd a syrthiodd mewn tir da, ac a ddyga- sant ffrwyth, peth ar ei ganged, arall ar ei dri- ugein/ed, arall ar ei ddegfrd ar hugain." Matth. xiii. 8. The same idiomatic use of the Ordinal Numeral, but without the preposition, is seen in— " A honno oed dryded prif rieni yn yr ynys honn." Mab. 27.

 
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  108 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY (And she was one o/ the three Chie/ ladies in this island.) " Cladassant y penn yn y gwynurynn. A hwnnw uu y trydyd matcud pan cudywyt, ar trydyd anuat - datcud pan datcudywyt."—lbid. 42. (They buried the head in the JVhitc Mount, and when it was buried, it was one o/ the' three goodly conceal- ments ; and it was one o/ the three ill-fated dis- closures when it was disinterred.) Paluawt branwen, yr honn a vu tryded annat Paluawt yn yr ynys honn." Ibid. 43. (The blow given to Branwcn, which was onc o/ the three unhappy blows o/ this island.) This use of the Ordinal for the Cardinal is seen also in French ; e.g.— lui quinziöme, he with fourteen others. And in Middle English— " His ,f/tcnd some: of knight With him yede na mare." (i.e. he with fifteen others.) Köbling, Notes to Sir Tristrem. And the Scotch foursome. /oursum—a term used where four act together—is probably from fourthsomc, illustrating the same idiom. We may cornpare also the Old English method of stating nutnbers containing a fraction, e.g.—

 
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  THE NUMERALS 109 'Other healf,' (so German, ' andert-halb one and a half; lit. the second a hall. ' Fifte healf hund, four hundred and /i/ty ; lit. the fifth a hql/-hundred. Compare also Latin ' sestertius ', a contraction of ' semis tertius ' lit. the third a half; hence two and a half. We noticed above that, though the ar-phrase usually comprises the previously named individual or object, in one or two examples it is additive. A similar un- certainty existed in the use of ' sum ', some, with numerals in Old English ; e.g. in Orosius CCII. 16— feowera Sum = with four others ; while in Beowulf 3124 eahta sum = with seven others, i.e. himself the eighth.

 
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  CHAPTER Vll PERSONAL PRONOUNS A. SIMPLE OR NORMAL PERSONAL PRONOUNS. (1) Mediæval :— r. 2. Sing. mi. vi. ti, di ef, efo hi,' hy Plural m, ny chwi fwy. hwy (v,ynt, hwynt rst Singular.—ln English, Latin, and some other Aryan languages two entirely different stems have to be distinguished : English I (Old Eng. ic) and Latin ego are different from English me, Latin me. The strictly Nominative form has disappeared from Welsh, the other stem now doing duty for the Nominative as well as for oblique cases. So in Old Irish ' mé ' ktands for ' I ' and ' me '. French, too, has gone a long way in the direction of obliterating the distinction between the functions of the two stems, in that ' moi ' often stands for the Nominative : Welsh, myrt yw ( English, It is I) = French, C'est moi. The same tendency is observable in the English vulgarism It is me ', but this is not sanctioned by literary usage. 1 10

 
(delwedd L1370) (tudalen 111)

 (tudalen 1 10) PERSONAL PRONOUNS Examples of mi, vi, i :— 111 Ac wrtll hynny tra vu vygkyvoeth i yn gallu rodi rodyon pawl) am karei. Ac nyt mi a gerynt namyn vy rodyon am devodeu am donyeu." Bruts. 67. " Och vi a dwyweu nef a dayar pa bryt y daw yr amser y gallwyf y talu clchwyl yny gwrthwyneb yr gwyr hynn."—Bruts. 67. Where the pronoun is affixed as an auxiliary for ex- planation or emphasis of an already expressed Possessive or Personal Pronoun, the form is always ' i ' or ' vi ' (Mod. ' fi '), never ' mi Of these, ' i ' is the usual form except when following a verb or pronominal preposition in ' -f e.g.— " Cymerais i; adwaen i; fy mhlant i ; Ti a'm gwiscaist i."—Llyfr Job. x. But some writers freely use the fuller form " fi," even in this connection ; e.g. in Bishop Morgan's Bible— " Efe a'm barn /i yn Job. IN. " Ti a'm cyssylltaist fi ag x. Similarly the fuller auxiliary form fi ' is often used colloquially in Gwynedd ; e.g.— dyma fy Ile fi. After the first person of a verb in ' - i' or of a pro- nominal preposition, " fi " (older ' vi ') and " i " are used indifferently :

 
(delwedd L1371) (tudalen 112)

 (tudalen 1 11) 112 WELSH GRAMMAR .AND PHILOLOGY " Mwy boen yw genyf i yr awr hon goffav uygky- 67. " Gweddw hebot ydwyf ft." J. M. J.'s Caniadau, 18. Mi is used— (i) at the beginning of a sentence— mi a åf (ii) when governed by ' å ' with its compounds ' gyda ', 2. ' tua ', ' parth å ', and after the preposition ' i '— " Prydydd wyt medd prophwydi Cywyddol manol i mi. ab G. cxxx. Ti, di : At the beginning of a sentence the form is usually ' ti ' Ti a weli. Ti I)duw a folwn. But some writers, like Morgan Llwyd, prefer ' di '— " Di dy hunan a ddylit fynnu gwybod." Llyfr y Tri Ad. 183. " Di ddywedaist ddigon."—lbid. 181. After forms in ' -d ', ' -t ', much freedom is allowed, no doubt due in part to the fact that in ' cynghanedd ' 't ' alliterates with ' d-d ', ' dt ', ' td ', and ' tt Hence ' di ' and ' ti ' are used indifferently, though in present-day Welsh ti ' is much commoner than ' di ' in that construction—

 
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 (tudalen 1 12) PERSONAL PRONOUNS 113 " Nyt mwy o volyant y Owein a dywedcist di no minneu." Mab. 170. 3.—Ti and chwi : The use of the plural of courtesy is of much more recent growth in Welsh than in English. In the latter ' you ' for ' thou ' does occur even in the thirteenth century, though the struggle between the courtly ' ye ' and the honest old ' thou ' was not finally settled for centuries after ' Louerd,' he seiden everilc on, ' yur siluer is yu brogt agon.' " " ' Lord,' they said every one, ' your silver is brought you back again. '—Genesis and Exodus (c. 1250). In Mediæval Welsh the use of ' chwi ' for ' ti ' is un- known. The knights regularly addressed even King Arthur and his queen Gwenhwyfar in the 2nd person singular. Owain, speaking to the King, says : " Ti a glywy a dyweit y mackwy os da genhyt gwahard wynt y wrth vy mranos."—Mab. 153—4. And Cai to Gwenhwyfar : " Nyt mwy o volyant y Owein a dywedeist di no minneu."—Mab. 170. Early in the eighteenth century ' chwi ' for ' ti ' is often used for politeness and respect to superiors Bardd Cwsg (1703) addresses the Angel in the 2nd per-

 
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 (tudalen 1 13) 114 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY son plural; e.g. " Beth y gelwch i' r " ( = gelwch, chwi' r) " tair hudoles yna." •But the Angel generally uses the 2nd person singular in his replies ; e.g. " Tyred ym mlaen a dangosaf i li beth ychwaneg." In the same text occurs a striking instance of a sudden change from the respectful ' chwi ' to the ' ti ' of contempt or de. fiance in the same speech : Lucifer, addressing Angeu in reference to some un- desirable subjects about to be sent him, says " Am hynny trowch hwy'n ei höl, neu gedwch gyda chwi hwyn. Oblegid myn y Goron uffernol os bwri hwy yma, mi a faluriaf tan seiliau dy Deyrnas di." So in Drych y (1740) the feigned mutual respect of the Lion and the Goat is emphasized by the use of the- plural :— Llew : " Beth a wnewch chwi yn dihoeni ar dussw o wellt ? " Gafr: " Diolch i chwi, meistr , ... am eich cynnyg (la." pp. 54—5• Contrast the conversation of Gwrtheyrn and Hengist in the same text : Gwrtheyrn : " Estron a phagan ydwyt ti." Hengist : " O arglwydd Frenin caniattå i'th was gymrnaint o dir i adeiladu Castell ag yr amgylchyna Carrai." Gwrtheyrn : " Di a geffl gymrnaint a hynny yn rh»'dd. 100.

 
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 (tudalen 1 14) PERSONAL PRONOUNS 115 4.—Third person masculine: ' ef ' in the Red Book, Passim. The form ' fo ' does occur occasionally in mediæval literature : e.g.— " Sefais innau heb sonio Yn fud yn ei ymyl fo."—D. ab G. cxv. 11—12. And later, in the works of North Wales writers, ' fo ' is found sporadically ; e.g.— " Gwrthwyneba fo yn dy galon." Llyfr y Tri Aderyn 243. 5.—In the plural of the 3rd person the mediæval form, masc. and fem., is wy ( Old Irish ' é which, after the verb and pronominal preposition, was often aspirated into hwy— " Ba ffuryf y kefhr wy y gantaw ? "—Mab. 60. " Auory minneu a dangossaf gyfnewit am danunt " Menegis idi hi nat oed iawn udunt hwy attal y mab."—Mab. 22. Before the verb the form was ' wynt ', i.e. ' ' -F the 3rd person plural termination of the verb ; e.g. " Ac ual yd oedynt yn eisted uelly wynl a welynl teir Ilong ar dec yn dyuot o deheu iwerdon." Mab. 26. 6.—Two derivative forms of the Personal Pronoun are of common occurrence in Welsh :

 
(delwedd L1375) (tudalen 116)

 (tudalen 1 15) 116 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY B.ETIIE REDUPLICATED OR EMPHATIC : myfi (from mi 4- mi), etc. C.—THE CONJUNCTIVE : minnau (? < mim + teu), etc. IS.—I. The accent being on the last syllable of the Reduplicated Pronoun, the vowel of the first syllable through indistinct articulation passed into the ' natural a ' (' obscure y ') sound. Hence— mi + mi > myfi hi -i- hi > hyhi, etc. The ' e- ' of ' ef ' is an exception as far as the written form is concerned, and ' efef ' is written ' efe ' instead of ' yfe '. Still, even here, colloquially, the sound is that of ' y ' rather than ' e '. 2.—The whole first syllable of these compounds is often further changed colloquially into ' y ' and not infre- quently detached, due to its resemblance to the definite article; and as the function of reduplication is closely analogous to that of the article, ' y fi ' for ' (m)yfi ' would not seem at all strange. These corrupt forms are found occasionally in literature ; e.g.— " Artaith ddirym ar Gymro,—Eres yw ei fyw y fo! f' Gruffydd Gryg in I). ab G. cxx. " Onid y nhwy yw'r adar gwirion." Llyfr y Tri Aderyn 163.

 
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 (tudalen 1 16) PERSONAL PRONOUNS " Och yii ha wr fab." 117 Wm. Morris to Richard, letter CXXXIII (1752). ' Mynega os adwaenost ti y hi ei gyd." Llyfr Job xxxvlll. 3.—Or, again, the first vowel may disappear. leaving the initial consonant like a post-vocalic possessive adjective; e.g.— ' Gwr iau ydyw mewn gwradwydd, Mewn difri, na'm fi o flwydd ! " D. ab Gwilym, cxxvrr. 29—30. " Onid gwatwarw$r [ydynt] gyd a'm fi ? " Llyfr Job c,XV11. " Mae ei feddwl ef mewn tair o gadwyni hegrn ac yn nigofaint y brenin mawr gydam ft." Llyfr y Tri Aderyn 259. " Nid adwaenost di (Druan) nath di dy hunan, nar hwn ath wnaeth." Llyfr y Tri Aderyn 117. " gidath d' 118. Here the apostrophe is entirely misplaced, as the elision is after ' m ' and ' th ', and not before. The same mistake occurs in the post-vocalic Posses- sive Adjectives and Personal Pronouns. The stages of development in the latter are

 
(delwedd L1377) (tudalen 118)

 (tudalen 1 17) 118 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY Efe a mi gwelodd > efe a my gwelodd > efe am gwelodd > efe a'm gwelodd. And the Possessive Adjectives :— Gyda m(yn) tad > gydam tad > gyda'm tad. The ' -yn ' of myn ' was dropped before the nasal mutation was accomplished. The use of the apostrophe is quite recent, and is due to the analogy of the post-vocalic Definite Article, where, though modern, it is justified on account of the dropping of ' y Thus— i yr Ile > irlle > i'r Ile. 4.—Finally, the whole of the first syllable up to and including the vowel may be lost, causing a reversion of— rnyfi, hyhi, nyni, and chwychwi to the simple forms mi, hi, ni, and chwi, and of ' tydi ' into the mutated form ' di ', as well as the provected form ' ti The use of ' di ' at the beginning of a sentence has been illustrated above (v. Simple Personal Pronouns). In the 3rd pers. sing. masc. and the 3rd pers. plural this elision yields the truncated forms— fo, fe; [plu.] nhwy. " Sefais innau heb sonio, Yn fud yn ei ymyl fo." D. ab Gwilym cxv. 11—12.

 
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 (tudalen 1 18) PERSONAL PRONOUNS r 19 " A fuost ti erioed yn i mysg nhwy i weled beth y mae nhwy yn i wneuthur ? "—Llyfr y Tri Aderyn 170. These truncated reduplicated pronouns are no longer emphatic, and they are used for the simple pronoun. , . ' of Mediæval Welsh is ousted by Thus the ' ef a the ' fe a ' of the Llyfr y Tri Aderyn and Bardd Cwsc. ; " e/ a a y nywl ymeith."—Mab. 294, and " e/ a aeth un o nadunt."—Mab. 247, referring to one of the ladies of Gwenhwyfar. " Erbyn i mi ddeffro f'am dygasei i ryw ffordd allan o bellder y tu arall i'r Gaer."—Bardd Cwsc. 59. " Fe a wyr bob peth sydd, ac a fydd, ac a ddylai fod."—Edw. Samuel, Gwirionedd y Grefydd Gristionogol, 14. 5.—Strange as it may seem, the concurrent loss of emphasis in these truncated forms of the Reduplicated Personal Pronoun is so pronounced that ' fe ' at the beginning of a sentence in the Demetian dialect is purely formal, and is used for the masculine and feminine in all persons of the singular and plural ; e.g. Demetian : Sing. : fe wela(f) fe weli Plur. : fe welwn fe welwch fe wel (e and hi) fe welan(t) It is noteworthy that the dialect of Gwynedd has

 
(delwedd L1379) (tudalen 120)

 (tudalen 1 19) 120 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY extended the use of ' mi ' in the same way. Hence Gwynedd— Sing. : mi wela(f) mi weli mi wel (o and hi) Plur.: mi welwn mi welwch mi welan(t) I.iterary usage does not sanction either of these dialectal extremes ; it insists upon the distinctive use of ' mi ', 'ti ', ' ef ' and ' hi ', ' ni ', ' chwi ' and ' hwy ' mi (a) welaf ti (a) weli fe (a) wel, etc. This simplification of the reduplicated pronoun had not taken place in the Mabinogion, where, therefore, the forms 'di' (for ' tydi '), 'vo' (for 'euo '), and ' nhwy' (for ' wyntwy ') do not occur : at the head of a sentence in the Mabinogion, the 2nd person sing. is 'ti not 'di'; e.g.— " Ti a gey ychwanegu it wrth dy vynnu dy hun." Mab. 31. At that time, even the darkening of the first vowel sound from ' i ' to ' y ' was not quite completed, at any rate, in writing; for side by side with the later forms we find occasionally the earlier ' mivi ', ' tidi ', ' nini ' " Llyna heb hi beth ny weda mivi."—206. " Duw a wyr na weleis i eirmoet was well no thidi wrth wreic.' '—173•

 
(delwedd L1380) (tudalen 121)

  PERSONAL PRONOUNS 121 " A gouyn a oruc idi ae hihi oed yn peri hynny y eremt Euo is the reduplicated form of the third singular masculine in Mediæval Welsh : " Ef a wyl pawb or a del y mywn ac nys gwyl neb euo."—Mab. 224. In the sixteenth century ' efe ' and ' fe ' came into use and rapidly ousted ' efo ' and ' fo ', though sporadic instances of the latter are found in North Wales writers. In Deffynniad Ffydd Maurice Kyilin both and e/e occur ; also fo and c— " E fynne I)duw fod rhai . rhyw . a gynneuent legis William Salesbury, Yn y Lhyvyr I-Iwn, and Bishop Morgan use ' efe ', ' fe ', though instances of efo ', ' fo are found in the 1588 translation of the Bible : " Os myn efe ymryson ag Job rx. Similarly, while Morgan I-Ivsyd and Elis Wyn do not completely discard the older forms, as— " Ond mae fo yn esceuluso y T. A. 141. " Oh ! na yrrei fo yma seithgant."—Bardd Cwsc 101. they are clearly partial to the newer ' efe, fe.' C. r.—THE CONJUNCTIVES. Sing. 1. minneu < mirn-teu)

 
(delwedd L1381) (tudalen 122)

  Mediæval : Plural ninneu ( < nin-teu) 122 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY 2. titheu ( < tit-teu) chwitheu <cljwich-teu) 3. m. ynteu (? < em-teu) wvnteu f. hitheu (? < hih-teu) The etymology given in brackets is that suggested by Zeuss in his Grarntnatica Celtica. The third plural wyntcu has been replaced in Modern Welsh by the newer form hwylhau. 2.—The Conjunctive Personal Pronouns show no weakening of the vowel of the first syllable ; i.e. the forms are ' minnau ', ' tithau ', etc., not ' mvnnau ' tythau This is due to the position of the accent. In the great majority of words in Early Welsh it was on the ultima, due to the disappearance of the final unaccented syl- lable. Thus— Latin ' praesent" > Early \Velsh ' pressefi' > Med. and Mod. ' présen '. Latin ' memöria ' > Early Welsh ' myvyr" > Med. and Mod. ' m$fyr '. That the accent, however, was always on the first syllable in the conjunctives is clear from the retention of the 'i 3.—Hence we infer that the suffix ' -tau ' is an enclitic, i.e. had no accent of its own at any stage of its history. Its function, whatever its origin, is distinctly that of English ' and ', ' also Philologically, there would seem to be no difficulty in equating it with the Greek enclitic ' te ' and Latin ' -que ' of the same meaning.

 
(delwedd L1382) (tudalen 123)

  PERSONAL PRONOUNS 123 " In the Epic dialect ' te ' is frequently employed to indicate the agreement not only of separate parts of a sentence, but of whole sentences; often, too, in con- nection with other particles, such as ' kai ', ' men ', ' dé ', alla and with relatives hoste,• ' hososte '). In these cases ' te ' must generallv be left untranslated or rendered by an unaccented also " . Hos ke theois epipeithétai mala t' ekluon autou." Curtius' Greek Grammar, 624. " Y neb a gredo i'r duwiau gwrandawant hwylhau arno yntau." The above quotation may be said to express almost to a nicety the function of the enclitic -tau ' (older ' -teu ') in the Welsh pronouns. Examples : " Dewis di unbenn ae ti a elych yr llys ae tithcu a delych gyt a mi y hela."—Mab. 237. " Mi ath gymeraf yn wreic im, ac a rodaf uedyant vyg kyuoeth yth law ditheu."—Mab. 65. " Aniueileit bychein gwell eu kic no chic eidon, by- chem ynt 60. Note that ' hwythau ' is modern, replacing the mediæval ' wynteu '. ' A gwedy gwybot o wyr y kastell bot eu harglwyd yn llad eu gelynyon velly, dyuot allan or kastell a wnaethant 48.

 
(delwedd L1383) (tudalen 124)

  124 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY " Dioddefwch fi, a minne a lefaraf; ac wedi i mi ddywedyd, gwatwar dithe."—Llyfr Job 46. 4.—The Conjunctive Pronoun is often used in apposi- tion to a noun with the force of ' also ', and in that connection it is more nervous and idiomatic than ' hefyd ' ; e.g.— " Sinai yntau a grynodd o flaen Duw. "—Psalm Ixviii. 8. " 'Roedd y rhain hwythe'n methu cael y ffordd i Cwsc 32. The following from the Mabinogion would be more idiomatic if ' ynteu ' were substituted for ' ef ' " Goueileint a delis yndaw o gamhet idaw attal y mab gantaw ac e/ .yn gwybot y vot yn vab y wr 5.—The final ' -u ' of the conjunctive has been mis- taken by some writers for a vocalized form of ' f Hence— " Ac yntef oedd yn eistedd yng-hanol y llwch. " Llyfr Job ii. " O ! ebr yntef, mwy gennym ni rinwedd Cardottyn na mawredd brenin."—Bardd Cwsc 85'. The mistake of deriving ' ynteu ' from ' yntef ' does not seem unnatural ; but the conversion of the ' -u ' of the first person into ' f ', a practice affected by William Salesbury, and sometimes by other writers, is a strange freak oi fancy :

 
(delwedd L1384) (tudalen 125)

  PERSONAL PRONOUNS 125 " Cans pe's credyssech Moysen, chwi am credyssech loan, ch. v. " Minef' sy y yn gweithiaw."—lbid. ch. v. " Ar du Cephas medde'r llall rydwyf innef, a minnef medd'r trydydd, yn dal gyda'g Apollo." Deff. Fydd 56. 6.—An unfortunate tendency is noticeable in Modern Welsh to limit the use of the conjunctives. This is due in part to the fact that no corresponding words are found in English, and to the excessive tendency in Modern Welsh to an analytic form of speech. The same tendency which leads to the use of— yr wyf yn gweled for gwelai favours also the use of— ti hefyd for tithau, and similar loose constructions, so unlike the strong, nervous, and idiomatic style oi Bardd Cwsc and Drych y Prif Oesoedd. D.—POST-VOCALIC OR INFIXED PERSONAL PRO- NOUNS (1) Mediæval Singular 2. th Plural ch e, y, s (ys, as) 3. e, y, s (ys, as) 2.—When used : When any of the following words

 
(delwedd L1385) (tudalen 126)

  126 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY precedes a transitive verb which itself governs a personal pronoun in the accusative case, the object is placed immediately before the verb, as— Ni'm halogwyd i, not Ni Iralogwyd fi. The preceding .word may be— (a) the Personal Pronoun—mi, ti, fe, etc. ; (b) the Relative—a or y ; (c) the Adverbs—ni, oni, na ; (d) a conjunction ending in a vowel, as—na, pe, y. Note that the function of the Post-fixed Pronoun— as i in the above example—is merely to explain or emphasize the object already expressed. Examples : " Duw a wyr na thwyllafi am 117. " Yr honn a vynnei drigyaw yn llys Arthur hi ae kaffei."—Mab. 192. " Nyn Iledir namyn y gyt."—Mab. 117. " Yr duw canych ( = can nych) gwelas neb or gaer ettwa, ymchoelwch dracheuyn."—Mab. 117. " Y gred a rois ar y llyn, Na lafur byth ei gofyn : A'r gred a rois ar feddwdawd Ni's cywiraf hyd ddydd brawd." D. ab G. CLXXXI. The s in the third person was found to be phonetically the only possible form after ' ni' (' ny '), for 'nyy'

 
(delwedd L1386) (tudalen 127)

  PERSONAL would be indistinguishable negative ' ny '. Compounded with ' ny therefore— nym, nyth, nys ; PRONOUNS 127 in speech from the simple the regular forms were nyn, nych, nys. These in modern orthography become— ni'm, ni'th, ni's or nis; ni'n, ni'ch, ni's or nis. " Nyt oes neb yma a wypo (dim) y wrth hynny o nys gwyr Branwen." —Mab. 35-36. Contrast— " le heb ynteu Vendigeit Uran ony allafi vy hun Cael y 37. Where the object of allaf is the verb-noun cael. Curiously, the sigmatic form was not used after y, where the same difficulty in a less degree was experi- enced. Hence in Mediæval Welsh and much later y has to do duty for modern ' y'i ', ' y'u ' (or ' ys ', ' y's 'j. " Lli ac Archan y ys, y's or y'u] gelwit."—Mab. 35. ' Kanys mawr y [ = y'i, ys or y's] karei."—Mab. 212. (For he loved him dearly.) ' A dywedut wrthunt a wnaethpwyt, nat yr amarch arnunt y y'u, y's or ys] dodit islaw y teulu." Mab. 227. " Myfi a wn fod fy mhrynwr yn fyw ac y y'i, y's, ys] Job .xrx. i' O lafur ei enaid y gwel ac y [=y'i, y's, ys] diwellir." Edw. S.

 
(delwedd L1387) (tudalen 128)

  128 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY Much uncertainty in the use of s has always pre- vailed :— (i) It is incorrectly left out of the following :— " Ny [for nysl welei neb ef." Mab. 41. " A'r eiddo ei hun ni (Iderbyniasant El." St. John i. 11. (ii) The following examples illustrate its correct use " le heb ef ac atuyd y mae arnat o enryded ual nas dylyy."—Mab. 2. ' Keissyaw Rolant ae dv.xn a oruc ac nys cauas." Ystorya 18. (iii) It is incorrectly used in the follouing :— " Ac atuyd ys kymeraf gyghor."—Mab. 37. " Os y Pabau y pryd ymma, nid ydynt yn guneuthyr y petheu hyn ; neu ynte, onis gwnaeth Pedr Abostol y pethau rhagddoededig O'r blaen." Deff. Ffydd 194-5. " Nis gwn i, ebr finneu, beth a allei'ch meddwl fod." Bardd Cwsc 61. " Nis gun i ddim o'u storiåu."—lbid. 64. " Pe ni's gadawsent i fusgrellni a llaithder eu gor- y P. O. 94. " Mae cyhyd arnser er pan ysgrifennais attoch, na's gwn yr avvrhon pa sutt i ddechreu." Llythyrau G. O. 50. It will be seen from these examples, and a host of others that might be adduced, that the pronominal

 
(delwedd L1388) (tudalen 129)

  PERSONAL PRONOUNS 129 function of s is often lost sight of, and there has been a growing tendency to regard it as a mere euphonic or formal termination of ni and before a verb in c- or g-. (iv) It is sometimes given a Relatival function, e.g.— " Atteb nys kauas ef genthi."—Mab. 7. " Dianc nys gallei."—Mab. 66. " F'a'm cipiodd yr Eryr nefol fi . . ffordd na's Similarly, it is Often retained after ' pe' as a merely formal or euphonic termination. In the following it has its true pronominal force : " Och ym ! pe's brathai Gymro, A gwayw o Fon ond gwae fo ! " D. ab G. cxx. These forms are used after but with the decay, and maybe the transference. of the final vowel of Pan, new forms of the pronoun arose, viz.— ym (for m), yth (for th), etc., and the third person reverts to the form ' y ' later ' ei ' (sing.), 'eu' (pl.). " Pan y kollassei."—Mab. 192. ( IV'hen he had lost him.) " Yr pan yth weleis gyntaf mi ath gereis."—Mab. " Nid oes etto oddiar flwyddyn er y diwrnod y (lapfu amdanai, pan i'm (for ym) damniwyd." B. C. 130. " Darfydded am y dydd i'm (for ym) ganwyd ynddo." Llyfr Job 111. • originally ended in a vowel. Cornpire l.atin quando.

 
(delwedd L1389) (tudalen 130)

  130 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY " A'r Ileidryn pan ei gwelodd a ymgroesodd byth wedi."—B. C. 131. ' Eithr pan y'th [read yth] xiv. 10. 3.—The regular MODERN FORMS of this pronoun Singular 1. 2. 3. 'th Plural 'n 'ch But in many writers of the early modern period there is much uncertainty in the use of 'i and 'u, the former being often used for the latter " Ac ai sancteiddie hwynt."—Llyfr Job 1, et Passim. The AUXILIARY POST-FIXED PRONOUNS 'i ', ' di ', ' ef ', etc., ' innau ', etc., as was stated above, are often added to define or emphasize the infixed pronoun, but should not be substituted for it ; e.g.— " A'r Arglwydd pan y gwelodd hi."—Luke vii. 13. should be, therefore— ' pan ei gwelodd hi." The insertion of the Auxiliary after the third singular is often necessary to avoid ambiguity, e.g. in— Efe a'i canmolodd 'i ' may be ' him ' or ' her whereas Efe a'i canmolodd ef is quite clear.

 
(delwedd L1390) (tudalen 131)

  CHAPTER POSSESSIVES A.—SIMPI.E POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE. Singular r. vyn, vym, vyng, vyg, vy, y, ym or dropped after nasalizing the initial of the next word 2. dy 3• y (e before hun, self) 1st singular : Plural yn, ynn, an ych, awch eu, y (e with hunein). " Y neb a dechreuis vyn diua yssyd yn y orfen." Mab. 53. A hynny YW vym penyt am lad ohonaf vy hun vy mab ae 23. " O hynny allan y dygyuores vyg kyuoeth am vym pen."—Mab. 32. Vyg' pronounce ' vyng ' ' n before g in Mediteval Welsh is generally left out in writing.) ' Ym kyffes y duw."—Mab. 271. " Y mam, heb 194. 131

 
(delwedd L1391) (tudalen 132)

  132 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY In Dafydd ab Gwilym, and later, the 1st pers. sing. ' fy ' appears occasionally under the following variant forms : " Ai canu (er mwyn cyni) Yn iach y mun, wnewch a nu " I)uw 011, ef aeth a'm dillad, A thori 'nll$, a thre' 'nhad, 'Y mhoen yw i'm hoyw ynys, F'yspeiliaw, 'nhreisiaw, dwyn Rhys." Deio ap leuan Du, G. B. C. 176. ' Y ' for ' fy ' is common colloquially in present-day Welsh, and examples are found in literature ; e.g.— ' Y modryb."—Bardd Cwsc 13 ; cf. p. 33. regularly in William Morris's letters ; e.g.— ' y nhad " In these letters ' fy in its reduced form often treated as a definite article, e.g.— " Dacw'r frech wen yn nhy'r chwaer." —217. " y brawd Llewelyn.'—226. Here ' y' may be for ' yn ', our. (ii) f' : often before vowels : ' Mae weithian f' anian yn fwy Y mae f' ofn yma'n fwyfwy."—D. ab G. ' Ertolwg, ebr fl, i' arglwydd."—Bardd Cwsc 45.

 
(delwedd L1392) (tudalen 133)

  POSSESSIVES (iii) yn : 133 " rhai eraill a'm diystyrant i mhellach gan yn galw'n Från."—Bardd Cwsc 63. (iv) It may be dropped altogether, after producing the nasal mutation— ' oeriA ngholyn.'—Bardd Cwsc 74. " A bu lawen iawn genni/\ 'ngweled fy hun." Bardd Cwsc 77. 2nd singular : " kan dy pader wrthi."—Mab. 195. 3rd singular • ' ar y 210. ' yn y orfen." (See first example above.) With ' hun ' (self), hunan ', the possessive was written e, and was probably made a more open sound than y to differentiate it from u of ' hun ' : yn y garchar ehun."—Mab. 15. Probably h in ' hun ' was a very soft spirant, so that e and the u of ' hun ' were practically contiguous sounds. It was different with ' hun ', sleep, where the h represents an original s (cognate with Latin ' somnus '), and consequently the Inore regular 'y' is used with the latter; e.g.— ' y vorwyn ry welsei trwy y hun ' .' —Mab. 85.

 
(delwedd L1393) (tudalen 134)

  134 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY 1st plural—' an ' and ' yn ' ' nyt nes an dianc ni erbyn y dyd noc udunt yn llad — ." Mab. 210. 2nd plural : " tyghetuen am rodes i yn awch medyant chwi." Brut. 50. " dyt ych dreic chwi diaspat engiryawl. "—Mab. 96. " Pobl anghyfrwys ydych ar ymladd, namyn ych bod yn arferedig i ddiwyllaw daear yn fwy nac yn dyscu yrnladd. A phan ddoethant ych gelynion am eich pennau. 3rd plural : y P. O. 83-4. " A Chyn penn y pedwyryd mis wynt chun yn peri eu hatgassau."—Mab. 32. " Buassei y mab ar y hardelw 23. 2. —The modern forms— ei, his, her ; ein, our ; eich, your never occur in Mediæval Welsh. They are first met with in the writings of William Salesbury, translator of the New Testament into Welsh. ' Ei ' * appears to be due mainly to a failure on the part of Salesbury to 'y' (sing.), and 'y', distinguish the sound of 1 ' eu ' (plural), for he not only frequently used ' i ', ' e ' eu ', and the new form ' ei ' without distinction See Dr. Gwenogvryn Evans's Introduction to Synnwyr Pen (Guild of Graduates Series).

 
(delwedd L1394) (tudalen 135)

  POSSESSIVES 135 in the same passage, but in the Dictionary he gives ' eu ' as the only form for his. Dr. Evans considers ' ' it was an afterthought which led to the employment of ' ei ' for his, hers." The change was perhaps helped by the Latin form cius, familiar to Salesbury from the Latin Vulgate. He went further, and extended the vowel initial ' e- ' to the rst and 2nd persons plural, coin- ing the forms cwn and en, ewch and ech, which cul- minated in ein and eich in his New Testament. The introduction of the diphthong into these two words was in part due to the ci of ' einym ', ' einwch The older form ' yn ', our, occurs in Llyfr y Tri Aderyn once— " Ac os gellir profi yn bOd ni O'n bodd yn niweidio néb." 171. and ' ych ', your, in D. y P. O. 83— " Pobl anghyfrwys ydych ar yrnladd, namyn ych bod yn arferedig i ddiwyllaw daear yn fwy nac yn dyscu ymladd." These words are still pronounced as ' i ', ' yn ', ' ych ', not only colloquially, but even in formal reading, un- less an effort is made to pronounce according to the written letter. 3.—-Even the plural ' eu ', which has the sanction of mediæval writings, side by side with ' y' modern ' i ' in sound) is articulated as the simple sound i ', not as the diphthong ' eu '. Hence it is not strange to find other writers besides. Salesbury failing to distin-

 
(delwedd L1395) (tudalen 136)

  136 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY guish in writing the singular and plural of the 3rd person, the form most favoured being the phonetic 'i ' (also ' ei ') for both. " Ai tåd a roddes iddynt hwy etiieddiaeth yrn mhlith ei brodyr."—Llyfr Job .XLII. " Yr eiddynt ei hun."—Deff. Ffydd, but in that work it is generally cu. Note the converse use of eu as singular on page 104— " Y Pab eu hun." In Morgan Llwyd's Llyfr y Tri Aderyn instances of eu are very rare :— " (Mae) rhai yn Ilefaru yn erbyn ei hewyllys, ac yn 01 eu Morgan I-lwyd regularly uses— (i) ' i ' before a verb-noun ; e.g.— " Mae ei gweithredoedd ei hunain yn i barnu. "—168. Exception : ei eu) occurs on page 207— " Ac yn ei gweled." (ii) ei and i before other nouns For ei see (i) above. i • " Fe a glywodd I)uw arno gymryd i " Fe ddylai rheolwyr roi Cennad i bawb i ddwedyd i meddwl." Elli; Wynne generally differentiates ci and cu.

 
(delwedd L1396) (tudalen 137)

  POSSESSIVES B.—-POST-VOCALIC OR INFIXED POSSESSIVE •ADJECTIVES. 137 1 .—Mediæval forms Singular 1. 2. 3. th e (-w rare) 2. Modern : 1. 2. 3. 'th PI ch e (-w rare) 'n 'ch 'i, 'w (after prep. i) 'u, 'w (after i) 3.—Exarnples of 'm ', ' th ', 'n' are common; 'ch ' is rare. The full form, ' ac ych ', ' ac awch ', being much commoner than ' ach' ( = ' a'ch : " Ac ych etiued."—Mab. (And your heir.) but instances of ach do occur :— " Ac os ovynn yssyd arnawch chwi, ymkyfies y duw mi ach differaf."—Mab. 19. In Mediæval Welsh the ' e ' of the 3rd person was probably pronounced like modern ' i and the repre- sentation of to his, to her, to •their, showed much un- certainty. In Modern Welsh the similarity of sound in preposition and possessive (i'i, i'u) has been over- come by the regular use of ' w ' after the ' i ' =to. In mediæval literature this simple solution was only begin- ning to gain recognition.

 
(delwedd L1397) (tudalen 138)

  138 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY Examples of its use are rare Dywedassant wy•nteu wrth yr amherawdyr nat oed weithret y neb y gaffel y gaer nac yw rodi idaw ynteu."—Mab. 91. This w has been shown by Sir John Rhys (v. Intro- duction to Brutieu, pp. xxxii—xxxiii) to occur in ' padiw ' ( < pa-+-di-+-w = which Of them) with di (now i) in its old sense of o/ cognate with Latin de. Another solution was to use o (from Brythonic ' do ' cognate with English ' to ') in its fast - disappearing sense of ' to ', and suffixing the possessive in the form ' e Examples :— " A Chyn penn y pedwyred vlwydyn yd oed yn ymoprau a gweisson y meirch am y adu oe [ = i'w, plural] dwyn yr dwfyr."—Mab. 21. " Sef y kawssant yn eu kyghor gossot kanwr ym pop tri chymwt ym powysoe [ = i'w, to his] geissaw." Mab. 144. Still another method, in the plural only, was to write y eu in full, as— ' Kyghorei kymryt y verch hynaf . . . yn wrenc y eu tywyssawc."—Brutieu 49—50. And finally, the commonest expedient was to drop the possessive altogether after mutating where possible the following consonant ; e.g.— " Ac ef a dywawt y [for i'w = to his] annwyleit." Mab. 82.

 
(delwedd L1398) (tudalen 139)

  POSSESSIVES 139 " Ar da hwnnw a rannei owein y [ = i'w] varwnyeit ae uarchogyon."—Mab. 179. 4.—The dropping of the post-vocalic, both pronoun and possessive, is not uncommon, both in mediæval and modern literature, after an ' i ', ' y or ' u ' sound, " y phryt " i'w phryd].—Mab. 45. " y [ = i'w] deyrnas."—Mab. 96. " or mor py gilyd [ = py'i, to its].—Mab. 83. ac yn y diwed y y'il lladawd."—Mab. 218—219. " ae adef ae wadu " [ = ai ei addef ai ei wadu]. Mab. 235• " Pan dycko beich . ny "'elir [ = ni's gwelir ef] vyth."—Mab. 109. " A hi a uu wreic " [a hi a fu ei 191. " Ac am hyny yr un dernl y y'i] gelwid hi." Edw. Samuel 129. The post-vocalic i is common in some writers for the plural, e.g.— " Y no yr annuwolion a beidiant ai cyffro." Llyfr Job 111. " Yr awron fe roes y tri i wascu i penneu 'nghf'd." B. C. 17. " Eu cymharu a'i cystadlu 011, un ac arall, a hen hanesion y Brutaniaid."—D. y P.O. Ga.

 
(delwedd L1399) (tudalen 140)

  140 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. Mediæval and Early Modern : 1. 2. Singular y meu (vi or i) y teu (di) 3. m. yr eidaw (ef) f. yr eidi (hi) Plural yr ernyrn yr einwch yr eidunt Often used absolutely, but sometimes conjoined to nouns, in which case the article—less often the Poss. Adj.—is usually placed before the noun preceding meu ', ' teu ', etc. Examples (1st pers.) : y meu i."—Mab. " y meu vy hun."—Mab. 24. (2nd pers.)— y 214. " dy teu 292. " deuparth y teu ditheu."—Mab. 104. (3rd pers.)_ yr eidaw ef."—Mab. 199. " y rei eidaw 234. yn eidi hi." Mab. 254. (1st plural)— ' ar emym ' [and 132.

 
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  POSSESSIVES (2nd plural)— " yr 12, twice ; (3rd plural). eidunt " (Mab. 269) ; " yr eidunt ' y rei eidunt."—Ystorya 15. Inter examples :— " A ddarfu ym, mau lym lid, 141 Mab. Nod mwy ofn, neud mau ofid ! "—cxrv. " Lle rhadlawn Iliwiwr odlau Llwybr chweg, llafur teg yw'r Hed$dd. " Nid llwyd fy marf, arf erfai, Nid Ileddf fy nghorun. nid llai Na phan ydd oeddem, gem gu Einym gur, yn ymgaru."—cxvll. William Salesbury ; Synnwyr Pen : trwyr llatrat yma meuvy.—-l. (through this theft o/ mine) ar iaith einym.—2. Bible :— Y llawenydd hwn mau fi gan hynny a gyflawnwyd." John iii. 29. Goronwy Owen " Crist fyg a fo'r meddyg mau, Amen ! a nei i minnau."—y Farn Fawr. A thyle dwr o'th law dau."—Bonedd yr Awen.

 
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  142 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY 2.—GROWTH OF THE MODERN FORMS : ' einym ' and ' einwch ' were never freely used even in Mediteval Welsh, and practically disappeared after Salesbury's time. That writer, however, coined the substantival ' eino ' and tried, in vain, to give it currency in the various persons ; e.g. in Synnwyr Pen we find— "yr eino "yr eino yr hen Brytanait."—9. With the disappearance of ' einyrn ', ' einwch ', the need of forms to replace them became pressing. An attempt was made to effect this by regarding one of the remaining forms as a substantive, and using it with proper suffixes or auxiliary pronouns for the singular and plural in the three persons. ' Meu ' and ' eidaw ' gained some currency in this new capacity. Meu : Even in the Mabinogion at times was treated as an indeclinable substantive, in the sense of possession ; e.g.— " Vyn tat i bioed y kyuoeth hwnn yn yeu idaw Chun.' '—207. " Ae meu y minneu dy uerch di weithon. ,lleu heb ynteu. "—142 " Vy merch inneu a geffy yn ueu Compare ' meuvet ', possession, in the Black Book, third poem. Meu soon gave way to ' eiddo '. The first step was

 
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  POSSESSIVES 143 to regard ' eiddo ' as a substantive, meaning possession, seen in such phrases as— " eiddo 'r Argl»dd y ddaear."—Psalrn xxiv. 1. ' A minnau yn eiddo yntau."—Caniad Solomon ii. 16. And, with pronouns instead of nouns in the Possessive Genitive, — eiddo fi, eiddo ti, etc. which occur frequently in Llyfr y Tri Aderyn and other writings. The suffixing of the pronoun was then easy, thus converting ' eiddo ' back again into a—pronoun ; e.g.— eiddo fi > eiddofi > eiddof i, eiddof fi, eiddof eiddo ti > eiddoti > eiddot ti, eiddot EIDDOM — EIDDOCH : The first and second person plural were modelled on Pronominal Prepositions like ' atom ' , ' atoch ', and certain tenses of the verb; as, ' gwelsom ', ' gwelsoch '. EIDUNT > EIDDYNT : The u of the third plural was clianged into y on the analogy of the verb. ' Eiddi ' in the third singular feminine held its ground. Hence the modern forms— -1. 2. Singular eiddof eiddot Plural eiddom eiddoch eiddvnt (m.) eiddoi (f.) eiddi

 
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  144 WEI.SH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY OF THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUN. ' Mau ' and ' tau ' are genitives of the Personal Pro- noun; ' tau ' is cognate with Sanskrit tava.' ' Eiddo ' is not so easily explained. There is a diffl- culty in connecting the first element With ' ei ' , his, her, because the mediæval form of the latter was ' y '. However, just as ' y ' (his, her) was c before ' hun ', to differentiate it from the u sound following, so it is possible that the analysis of ' eiddo ' is e ( = y) + id o (him), ' eiddi' = e + id + hi; id (now ' idd- ') can be equated with the Old Irish neuter third singular of the Personal Pronoun, and with English if, Latin id. If that be correct, it is the Welsh Mediæval Relative Pronoun Yd, the yd of ydoedd,' the -ydd of 'sycld ' (for ' ys- ydd '), and may be the d, dd, t, th found in the third person of Pronominal Prepositions ; e.g. yn-dd-o, gan-dd-o, gan-dd-i, mediæval genthi, genti. Analogous in formation to ' mau ' and ' tau ' is the interrogative ' piau' (=whose), from the root of ' pa,' ' PY" ' pwy' Pieu y gaer heb wynt.—Mab. 126. Whose (is) the castle? they inquired. As the verb ' to be ' was not expressed in questions introduced by ' piau.' the interrogative itself acquired a verbal function and came to be partially conjugated : A gofyn a wnaeth pioed y meirch.—Mab. 28.

 
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  CHAPTER IX INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS (I) INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN AND ADJECTIVE Pronoun Adjective Pa ' P wy ' and ' Pa ' are doublets like ' pawb ' and ' pob and the cause of the differentiation is the same : ' pwy ' retains its principal accent, while ' pa ' is a proclitic passing its accent on to the following word ; e.g.— pa fin ? pa béth ? pa wédd ? pa r$w ? If we postulate a late Brythonic ' pö' ', its phonetic representative to-day will be ' pwy ' ; compare Latin sörus pönsurn ', > Welsh hsvyr'. ' pu•ys If the accent is removed, long ' ' is subject to the same laws of sound change as accented short ' é' ' that is, it may pass into Modern Welsh ' y ' ; cf.— sentire > synnwyr tempore > tymor And so unaccented The interchange of y and a in an unaccented syllable is not uncommon ; compare—

 
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  146 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY amddiffyn and ymddiffyn ; ambell and ymbell, etc. Hence and proclitic pi > > py or pa ' Py ' is not uncommon for ' pa ' in Media•val Welsh— ' py le pan doei, pan deuaf o lys Arthur."—Mab. 204. (IVhence comest thou ? Il'hence do I come the court o/ Arthur.) Puy ' is an Interrogative Pronoun, and in Modern Welsh is strictly confined to persons ; e.g.— " Beth a dybygwch chwi am Grist ? Mab i bwy ydyw ? "—Matt. xxii. 42. In mediæval literature it is often used in asking the name of a man—a perfectly natural extension of its use : " A govyn pwy oed y enw."—Mab. 214. " A dywedy di ynni pwy dy lyssenw."—Mab. 147. rwy ' is occasionally met with as an adjective ; e.g.— Ni waeth amcan merch i bwy Hywel oedd Nest." I-lythyrau G.(). p. 108. . . pwy waeth pryd- " Ihvy ffraethach areithydd ? . ydd ? " Ibid. 103—4. The adjectival use of ' pwy ' is common in colloquial Welsh.

 
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  RELATIVE PRONOUNS 147 Pa ' is constructed with a word which can re- ceive the principal phrase accent :— (i) When that is a noun or its equivalent, ' pa ' is adjectival : . a derw y titheu."—Mab. 288. " Pa beth . (And what has befallen thee ? ) ' Beth ' is often left understood in early writings : " Pa deryw ytti ? "—Mab. 288. (VV'hat has happened to thee And even the whole phrase ' pa le ' is sometimes under- stood, as— Mae Abel dy frawd ? On the other hand, in Modern Welsh ' pa ' is often omitted, and ' beth ' used alone as the interrogative : " Beth yw hyn ? Pa athrawiaeth newydd yw hon ? " Mark i. 27. ' Rei ' (modern ' rhai ') is omitted from the phrase— = pa (py) + di -F w Pa diw or py diw* (Which o/ them ?) (ii) When prefixed to prepositions, ' pa ' is strictly substantival, but the whole phrase is adverbial in its function : paham < pa + am; pahar < pa + ar ; parag, pyrag < py,pa + rhag. • See Brutieu, pp 57. 162, and the explanation of this phrase by Sir John Rhys in the Introduction.

 
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  148 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY All meaning why, wherefore : " Pahar e mae macht ? "—l-aw•s (For what is bail ? ) Of these ' paham ' alone remains in use in Modern Welsh. ' Pa un ' is now selective, like the English Interrogative which : Pa un yw'r goreu ? (Which is the best P) But in Medi:eval Welsh it is often equivalent to ' ? ' (who : " Pa un wyt titheu ? "—Mab. 209. (And who art thou " Tra uych yn dywedut yrn pun 222. " Nid er d' ofn, nid er d' arswyd, Ond er gofyn,—pa un wyd ? "—D. ab G. CXCII. Pwy ' and ' pa '—unlike the English interroga- tives who and which—have not become Relatives. Still, the first stage in the transition is accomplished, viz. in their being used in the Indefinite Relative phrases— pwy bynnag, pa bynnag. Further, a comparison with English and other lan- guages shows clearly that an oblique case of the In!er- rogative more readily passes into a Relative than does the N.»minative. Thus whose and whom were Relatives in English long before who acquired that function.

 
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  RELATIVE PRONOUNS r 49 Somewhat analogous is the early use Of ' pan arid po '—oblique cases of the Interrogative—as Adverbs. The originally interrogative character of ' pan ' is still faintly discernible in the sentence already quoted from the Mabinogion : " Py le pan doei? Pan deuaf o lys arthur." Lit. " What place whence comest thou? IV'hence do I come ?—from the court of Arthur." In Modern Welsh pan has travelled so far from its originally interrogative force that it cannot be used to ask a question ; e.g.— ' Pa bryd [not pan] y deuaf ac yr ymddangosai ger bron Duw ? "—Psalm xlii. 2. (Il) RELATIVE PRONOUN a; y, yr older L'd, ydd ' a ' is Subject or Direct Object of a verb : Subject: Y neb a'm gwelodd i a welodd y Tad yr hwn a'm hanfonodd i. Object: Mv,y hyn nag a welais erioed O'r blaen. ' y ' (before consonants), ' yr ' (before vowels), 2. are used for all other case relations : " Braidd y medrai fi ddarllen y llaw." Llythyrau G.O. 97. ' Tég, eb ef, y gwnaethent å thi oni bai 'nyfod i mewn pryd ith C. 8. " Y dydd y daeth y newydd."

 
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  150 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY 3.—As the Relative is a proclitic, the phonetic values of a and y have not always been easily distinguished ; and examples occur not infrequently in literature of one being used for the other. a for y : . " Y mae ynys parth hw•nt y ffreine yn gadwedic or mor o bop tu idi, ac uu gewri gynt yn y chyuan- hedu."—Brutieu 52. " A chvvithau a fydd cywilydd arnoch." Esaiah Ixv. 13. ' Mewn pedwar ugain o ysgraffau fordwyodd efe a'i wyr tuag at ynys y P.O. 29. y for a : " Y digred y welaist gynneu."—Bardd Cwsc 32. " Try allan ddynion tri-llu Y sydd, y fydd, ac a y Farn 93—4. 4.—This confusion made it possible to detach the initial ' y- ' of ' ysydd ' ( < ' ys' is, + pronoun ' ydd ') and attribute to it the function of the Relative, as in the last. example above. Compare also— " O fy nghares, eb efe, beth a wnewch chwi yn dihoeni ar dussw o wellt mor arw ag y sydd yna rhwng y creigydd ? "—D. y P.O. 54. Strictly speaking, y with a pronominal function be- fore sydd is pleonastic, •as the verb contains its own

 
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  RELATIVE PRONOUNS 151 relative in the suffix -ydd '. The correct usage is seen In— ' Arall yw yr hwn sydd yn hau, ac arall yr hwn sydd yn medi."—John iv. 37. 5.—ETYMOLOGY OF ' A ' AND ' YIM) ' (i) As the ydd in ' sydd ' is always subject of the verb, its function is that of the modern a. (ii) The natural a-sound is often represented in- differently by a ' and ' y ' ; e.g.— Med. an, yn (our) awch, ych (your) ambell and ymbell, etc. (iii) The examples given above prove the occasional use of a for y, and y for a. Hence the evidence is strong in favour of the sup- position that the Relatives a and y (' y-dd ') go back to the same ultimate form, and that their present differ- entiation of function is a fact of modern accomplishlnent. Both are probably demonstrative in origin, aild the -dd is a neuter suffix cognate with d in Latin ' id ', and t in English ' it '. YDD mediæval yd, was the fuller form oi y : " Gwedy y vlinaw 0 wrthrwm lauur yd aruaethwys gorfywys o hynny I. " Wedi 'i ddwyn anrhydedd oedd, Ydd arbedwn dda'r bydoedd." Tudur Aled, G. B. C. 238.

 
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  152 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY " Diachos im' dy ochel, I)ywed ydd wyf, doed a ddel." leuan Deulwyn, G. B. C. 149. As ydd, older yd, is a proclitic, it is read with the following word without a break, and in mediæval MSS. it was regularly written close up to it. Hence (i) in some words it is bodily prefixed to the next word, as— ydwyi, yduyt, ydyw; ydoedd. (Cf. p. 181.) (ii) When the next word begins with a vowel, a false division of words is apt to take place, and the final d of the pronoun detached and prefixed to the next word ; e.g.— < Med. yd aeth y daeth y derbyniaf < yd erbynnyai Hence the growth of a new and shortened form of the Relative, y, which is now regular before consonants ; " Cotier, ar 01 pob cyiarch, Nad i ddyn y pertluyn parch." G.O. Hiraeth 29-30. " Pa fodd y bu hynny mi a ddangosais eusys." D. y P.O. 24. 7.—Once the Relative was shortened to ' y ', confusion with the Definite Article 'y ' arose, and the fuller form ' yr ' of the latter gradually supplanted the earlier ' yd ' ydd Instances of ' yr ' with this new function are

 
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  RELATIVE PRONOUNS 153 very rare in Media•val Welsh, but one or two exarnples occur in the Mabinogion : " Mynet yr Ile yr i ohonaw ef pan ym byryawd ar par. a minheu y Ile yr oed Dynot a otmgant hyt Ile yr I.ater, instances becolne tnore nutnerous : Wvlo'r wvf o lwvr oial, Sori Duw, sarhawyd Aled, G. B. C. 234. ' Ydd ' has completely disappeared from present-day NVelsh prose. 8.—WEAKNEss OF THE As in Old English the indeclinable Relative ' the ' had to do duty for all genders and both nurnbers, so in Welsh the Relative has no difference of form to denote change of gender or number. (ii) Further, it cannot be governed by a preposition—* at any rate, directly. (iii) Again, as a may be subject or direct object oi a verb, an ambiguity often arises ; e.g. Dyma'r eneth a welodd iy chwaer may mean : This is the girl whom my sister saw, or This is the girl who saw my sister. The need, therefore, of supplenwnting the Relative has been keenly felt. Latin solved a like difficulty by using the Interrogative for the Relative, with a slight • One or two instances occur in Early Welsh.

 
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  154 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY modification oi form. In English the effort at evolving serviceable and satisfactory Relative forms can be studied in detail in old, mediæval, and early modern literature; and as it will help to throw light upon the problem as it presents itself in Welsh, brief reference will be made to it here. (i) THAT.—In Old English the Demonstratives ' se,' m. seo,' f. , ' thæt,' n.. came to be used as Relatives, either by themselves or in connection with the indeclinable Relative ' the '. In Early Middle English ' tluet ' acquired this new function for all genders and both. numbers, and ' the ' was dying out. (ii) WHO, WHICH, WHAT.—Always Interrogative, never Relative, in Old English. In Middle English the oblique cases whose and whom became relatival, and bv the end of the sixteenth cen- tury which, who, and what had acquired the new power. The transition took place through the following uses of the Interrogative—uses found even in Old English :— (a) The phrases ' swa hwa swa ' (whosoever), ' swa hwæt swa ' (whatsoever), ' swa hwilc swa ' (whosoever) were used as Indefinite or General Relatives. (b) They were used after ' gif ' (if), as Interrogatives it is true, but with a force that easily passed into that of an Indefinite Relative : Gif eow hwylc segth. Lit. (I/ any man say to you.) " If—who should Say to you ?

 
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  RELATIVE PRONOUNS The very same transition is seen in Latin— 155 quis = who ? but si quis = i/ anyone. (c) From the beginning indirect questions were introduced by Interrogative Pronouns, and in such sentences the force of the Interrogative is distinctly conjunctive or relatival He ascode thone cyning hwone he geseah. (He asked the king whom did he see.) Welsh has sought to solve the difflculty in much the same way. But it should be explained that here the Relative is free from many of the disadvantages that would attach to a single indeclinable Relative like thal in English, for the Pronominal Preposition at the end of the sentence, whenever it may be used, will render the exact scope and meaning of ' y ' or ' yr ' perfectly clear : I bob un y mae ganddo, y rhoddir iddo. And, while an inferior writer might say l)yma'r dyn 'r hwn yr ymddiddanwn, Or . "ha un yr, the construction Dyma'r dyn yr ymddiddanwn åg e/ is in every way as clear, and more idiomatic. But it is evident that no such construction could be resorted to in order to distinguish the subject a irom

 
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  156 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY the direct object of the verb; and even in medic•eval literature, especially in translations, the Demonstratives are sornetirnes used as a part of the Relative phrase in much the same way as 'se', 'seo ', ' thæt ' were used in Old English. Nor was that always due to the need of greater perspicuity : ' Ac yna y gossodet y uorwyn yr hon a elwit ignogen gwreic vrutus yn y kwr 01 yr Ilog."—Brutieu 51. " A llyna ual y teruyna y geinc honn or mabinogi, o achaws paluawt branwen, yr honn a vu tryded anuat paluawt yn yr ynys honn."—Mab. 43. . ? V briw ynghalon yr Oen " Pa beth yw'r drws ar y groes O'r hwn y daeth allan ddwfr a gwaed." Elis Wynne very seldom uses ' yr hwn ', ' yr hon ', ' y rhai even as antecedents; while Bishop Morgan and Morgan Llwvd crowd their works with them, and often without the least excuse. 9.—The Interrogatives pa ' and ' pwy ' have not ac- quired the simple relatival force of the English who, which, what. They are, of course, used in indirect questions, and as Such have a conjunctive function : " Nid ydwyf yn cofio pa bethau oedd yn hwnnw." G. O. I-lythyrau 97. They are also freely used as Indefinite Relatives in conjunction with ' bynnag ' " Pa diaspettych di bynnac arn gyireitheu llys arthur nyth ellyngir di y 104.

 
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  RELATIVE PRONOUNS " A pha rai bynnag ni 'ch derbyniant. 157 Luke ix. 5' The simple phrases ' pa un ', ' pa rai ', etc., are used by many inferior writers, and occasionally they occur in works that otherwise show a decided regard for Welsh idiom ; e.g.— " I)ydd Pasg, ar ba un y mae'r Ileill yn sefyll, yw bob arnser y Sul cyntaf," etc.—Prayer Book. ' Pa un ' occurs once in the Bible : " Chwi a welwch y dyn hwn, oblegid pa un y galwodd holl liaws yr luddewon arnaf fi."—Acts xxv. 24. " Gwal Sefer ; am ba un y can rhyw hen fardd fel hyn." D. y P. O. 59.

 
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  CHAPTER X OTHER PRONOUNS I. RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS (i) ein eich eu gilydd. ' Cll.vnn' is a noun cognate with Old Irish ' cele ' (companion), and the softening of the initial consonant is appropriate only in the singular ' ei gilydd ' (his com- Panion, his fellow). The phrase ' Ei gilydd ' is the origin of the reciprocal pronoun, and in Early Welsh it was always used in conjunction with a singular noun or pronoun ; e.g.— " Bot plant y bop un ohonawch oe gilyd."—Mab. 67. " Ar draws yr ynys or mor py 83. " Mawr syrth ar fy mro y sydd, Mur gwelw O'r mor bwy gilydd."—D. ab G. ccv. ' A Chan ein böd ni ymrna gydai gilydd." (Wrongly changed in some editions into gyda'n.) Llyfr y Tri Aderyn 210. English has almost the literal equivalent in one another : And as wc are here with one another. With one another is syntactically = one with another.

 
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  OTHER PRONOUNS 159 And in the last-quoted Welsh sentence the antecedent of i is not ni, but ' pawb' or ' pob un ' understood, the fully expressed sentence being— " A chan ein bod ni yrnrna bawl) gyda'i gilydd." In William Salesbury's translation of John Niii. 34 we have the correct construction : " Gorchymyn newydd '"Sf yn roi ychwy, ar garu o hanoch y gylydd : mal y cerais i chwychwi, a'r ychuy garu bawb y gylydd." The idiom has been kept in most of the older editions of the Bible, but is altered in others into cich gilydd. Kept in— " Gyr imi banes, gynnes gin, Morynyon glån Merionydd. Fel yr addewaist imi 'r pryd Y'n gwelit gyd a'i gilydd." Caniadau Prof. M. J. The modern practice of using ein, eich, eu with gilydd has arisen from a failure to grasp the syntax of the sentence containing the phrase, or perhaps one should say it is a legitimate extension of usage common in language : " Gosod y Twysogion ben ben a'r gilydd." Deff Ffydd 193. (ii) y naill, y llall (cach other, onc another) ; e.g. " Y naill wenwyn a ladd y llall."—Proverb.

 
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  160 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY In Mediæval Welsh ' y Ileill . y llall ' was the common formula : ' Ef a welei dwy vanaches yn dyuot, a chostrel yn llawn o win gan y Ileill, a chwe thortli o vara cann gan y llall." Mab. 206. " Ewch chwitheu a bydwch y Ileill yn uaed coet ar llall yn garnen coet."—Mab. 66. Similarly " Or Ileillparth . (On the one side . . or parth 273. on the other.) The easy interchange of n and I is one of the best attested facts in phonology. Hence medi.•eval ' y Ileill ' and modern ' y naill ' for the one, are doublets. Note also that in Gwentian and Demetian to-day y naill y nall is the regular expression for the literary y naili y nail The n- and 11- in ' mill', 'nail ', 'liail', and 'Ileill ' are the ending of the Definite Article detached by a wrong division of words and prefixed to the pronoun. Hence ' y naill ' from ' yn aill ' y llall from ' yll all or y Ileill ' from ' yll eill ' or' yl eill Il. INDEFINITE PRosouxs AND ADJECTIVES I.—Amryw (sing.), amryw (plu.), several, diverse; dif- ferent : from ' am- ' (cog. with Irish imm ', Irnme '

 
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  OTHER PRONOUNS 161 Latin ' amb ' ambi- ', ' arn- '), denoting here variety, multitude (cf. amliw); -F rhyw, kind, class. As an adjective. it is usually constructed with a plural ; e.g.— " E ddarfu iddo chwanegu amryw chwedlau at hanes Tysilio."—leuan Brydydd Hir. But sometimes with the singular— " Ac amryw le diffeith."—Mab. 195. " Na fydded gennyt yn dy god amryw bwys, mawr a bychan. Na fydded gennyt yn dy CIS amryw xxv. 13, 14. " Er gweled, amryw Galan, Gofal yn Ile cynnal can, Parchaf anrhydeddaf di, Tymhor nid drwg wyt imi." G. O. Cywydd y Calan. Dr. William Owen Pughe introduced a new plural, amrai, through the completely mistaken notion that ' rhai ' is the plural of ' rhyw ' (v. ' rhyw ' and ' rhai ' below). ' Cyfrai ' for ' cyfryw ' is due to the same error. Neither form has gained any literary sanction. Arall ' (plu. ' ereill ', ' eraill '), a reduplicated form of all bv dissimilation of l. Compare Old Irish ' araile ', ' alaile ' ' ; -all ' is cognate with Latin ' alius ', English ' else ', and a doublet of Welsh ' allan ' and ' ail '. enters into many compounds : ' alltud ', one from another people, ' allforion ', exports, etc.

 
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  162 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY Dim ' (Irish ' dim '), anything, is not in itself negative : " Byd hebddim yw bod heb ab G. CCXLVI. But its frequent use in (i) an indefinite sense, with the force of the least thing, anything whatsoever, and (ii) in negative or quasi-negative sentences, has led to its often having itself the force of a negative ; e.g.— dim o ddim. " Nid oedd dim Ond y distryw gwyllt o bob ochr." With this acquired negative force, we may compare French 'pas', step, and ' point', point; e.g.— N'est-ce pas ? (is it not P) Pas encore (not again, no more). 4.—Neb (Irish nech ' some one, any one) : anyone. As in the case of ' dim ', ' neb' often acquires a negative character : Oni welsoch chwi neb? Naddo, neb. (Did you not see anyone? one.) The use of ' neb ' as an adjective, as— neb dynion, has no literary sanction, and should be avoided. 5.—Holl and 011 : cognate with Old Irish ' uile ', ' ule ', whole, all. Both are adjectives.

 
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  OTHER PRONOUNS 163 The h in ' holl ' is accentual, after the r of the Definite Article ' yr ' which so often precedes it. Compare— ugain with deg ar hugain. Holl ' precedes the noun : ' 011 ' follows •yr holl fyd.' ' fy mebyd 011.' ' 011 ' with the Definite Article, like most other adjec tives, may be used as a noun : Dyna'r 011. ' Holl ' can never be so used. When constructed with numerals, a modified form, ' ill ' (mediæval, ell, ill, yll), is used, as— ill dau, ill dwy, ill pedwar. With this idiom we should compare the analogous use of French ' tous ', as— tous les deux (both). 6.—' Pawb ' and ' pob ' are doublets, ' pob ' being a weakened form, due to its being used in construction with a noun or pronoun upon which the emphasis or phrase-accent is thrown. The very same feature is observable in their Old Irish cognates, ' cäch ' and ' cach ' or ' cech '. ' Cäch ' with the long ' ä ' is equivalent to ' pawb Both are substantival, i.e. are used without a noun. Hence— pawb dynion, for pob dyn or pawb, is incorrect.

 
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  164 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY ' Pob ' and ' cach ' (cech) are adjectival. And just as ' pob ' is often associated with ' un ', so ' cach ' is with its Irish equivalent ' oen Both phrases—' pob un ' and ' cach oen '—have the same meaning—everyone. Like their Irish congeners, ' pawb ' and ' ' are properly singular : " Ac uelly gware ar got a wnaethant. Pawb ual y delei a ovynnei pa chware a wnewch chwi uelly." Mab. 16. See further examples of ' pawb ' in the singular under Reciprocal Pronouns. ' Pawb ' is now often used in the plural; e.g.— " Eithr pawb a'm gadawsant."—2 Timothy iv. 16. ' Pob ' is not often used in the plural, and a few phrases, like ' pob dynion ', sometimes used, have not gained the sanction of good writers or of colloquial speech. 7.—Rhywun (sing.), rhywrai (plu.) These compounds show clearly that ' rhai ' is not the plural of ' rhyw ', as Dr. William Owen Pughe seemed to think when he coined ' amrai ' as a plural for ' amryw'. ' Rhyw ' and ' rhai '* are distinct and unconnected : (a) ' Rhyw ' is singular or plural, and denotes kind or quantity, as— Rh»v beth rhyw bethau some (kind of) thing some (kind of) things • Compare Dr. Silvan Evans's Dictionary, under Amrai.

 
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  OTHER PRONOUNS 165 ' Rhai ' is always plural, and applies only to number : Rhai pethau (some things, a number o/ things). (b) ' Rhyw ' governs the soft mutation : Rhyw beth ( < peth) ; rhyw bethau ( < pethau). ' Rhai ' is followed by the radical : Rhai pethau.

 
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  CHAPTER Xl THE VERB 1.—To the student of comparative grammar, as exem- plified in the two languages with which Wales is most inti- mately concerned, one of the most noticeable peculiari- ties of the Welsh verb is the absence of an Infinitive Mood, including participles. Taking the last, we find that the Present, Past, and Future Participles Active are regularly expressed by prepositional phrases, with- out any trace of a participial inflection ; thus— learning having learnt is yn dysgu , wedi dysgu , am ddysgu, ar ddysgu. being about to learn But when the matter is looked into a little more closely we find that English is not so far removed from Welsh in this construction, for learning is in origin a verbal noun, and, in Old English, was always used as such. In Middle English -ing ' ousted the Old English present participle ending ' -nde ', as— O. E. leornende Mid. E. leorning. The transition is seen in such expressions as— The house is building, for The house is a ( = on, in) building. 166

 
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  THE VERB 167 When the preposition is thus supplied, the analogy to the Welsh construction is remarkable. The Old English present participle ending still sur- vives in two or three words, where its presence might not be readily suspected, viz. in ' fiend ', ' friend ', and ' husband ', meaning respectively the hater, the lover or cherisher, and the house-dweller. By Verner's Law we expect a d in English, in an originally unaccented syllable, from an Aryan t, as ' third ', Latin ' tertius '. This t is preserved in Latin, for the stem of the present participle ends in '-nt ', as ' amant(em) '. It is instructive to trace the same termination in Welsh, though no longer with a verbal function. It occurs in such words as ' meddiant ' and dihuddiant '. Nor is the change of meaning difficult. It is a case of simple association to pass from the act of possessing to the thing possessed. Compare a parallel transference in English— We are holding our own (ptc.). This is a small holding (noun). 2.—THE VERB-NOUN The student must beware of regarding it as a mere equivalent of the English infinitive mood. It is much more of a noun than the latter ; thus— (a) It may be qualified by the definite article : " Gan gydymholi beth yw yr adgyfodi o feirw." Mark ix. 10. (Questioning one with another whal the rising from the dead should mean.)

 
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  168 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY (b) Also by an adjective : Canu (la, (good singing). (c) The noun dependent upon it, as when dependent upon any other noun, is in the genitive case, and under- goes no initial mutation : Contrast : derbyn tal (the receipt 0/ Payment). and— derbyniais 'iål (I received Payment), where ' dil ' is accusative case, and has the customary soft mutation of the object when following a transitive verb. I.ikewise the post-vocalic or infixed pronoun pre- ceding it is in the possessive genitive case in func- tion) and not the accusative. This is evident from the mutation, e.g.— A'i chanmol a wnaeth (And he Praised her.) The possessive 'i governs the aspirate mutation. Contrast : Fe'i canmolodd hi (He Praised her), where the 'i is followed by the radical, and is thus in the accusative case direct object of ' canmolodd '. (d) It is governed by prepositions : Cyn derbyn tål, Before the (receiøt 0/ Payment).

 
(delwedd L1428) (tudalen 169)

  THE VERB 169 (e) It may be the subject or direct object of a verb : Cl»vaf iddo lwyddo yn yr arholiad. (I hear that he has passed the examination.) Still note that it has a verbal function, thus— (i) It is essential to the complete conjugation of a verb. (ii) In the periphrastic conjugation it is modified by adverbs, e.g. in— Yr oedd yn canu'n dda ' dda ' is an adverb of manner modifying ' canu '. 3.—THE FINITE VERB Final -t in the 3rd person plural and final -i are regularly dropped in colloquial Welsh :— (i) ' as ' penna' for ' pennaf', ' gnvela' for Illustrations may ' gwelaf ', and ' arnai ' for ' arnaf i '. be adduced from literature, e.g.— " A phawb a'i lygad arnai arnaf i]. Bardd cwsc 6. . . na pheth wy [ = wyf] " Nis e,vn i p'le yw yma . Ibid. S. fy hun — " Ni chredai chredaf i] mo böb chwedl." Ll. y T. A. 166. (ii) '-t ' in the third plural of the verb and oi pro-

 
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  170 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY nominal prepositions, as ' dysgan ', ' gunan ', ' oeddyn ', ' ganddyn ' for ' dysgant ',' gwnant ', ' oeddynt ', ' gan- ddynt '. Examples of this too may be found in the Welsh classics :— " Llyna'r modd yr adroddyn' Treiir rhwng y tri wyr hyn." I)afydd Nanmor, quoted in I) y P. O. 135. Dy frawd O'r dwfr o oedir, A'th nai da, aethon, i dir." Deio ap leuan Du, G. B. C. 175. With this dropping of final ' -t ' in verbs we may compare the suppressing of -nt ' in the pronunciation of the third person plural of French verbs, though the letters are regularly written, as— ils 4.—THIRD SINGULAR PRESENT INDICATIVE.— Colloquially in Gwentian the verb ends in ' -iff ' , as— dysgiff, gweliff, rhediff, while in Demetian it ends as consistently in ' -ith '— dysgith, gwelith, rhedith. ' -ith' is the older form. and occurs in old Welsh glosses as ' id ', it ' ; ' is a phonetic variant. That th and are occasionally interchangeable is shown by— ' benthyg ' for ' benffyg ', from Latin ' beneficium

 
(delwedd L1430) (tudalen 171)

  THE VERB 171 (Nuank, free, sometimes heard from children for— nothing, three.) The suffix -ith is cognate with English ' eth now obsolete, but common enough in Biblical language, as— maketh, seeth, receiveth. It must have been at one time present in the third singular present indicative of the English verb ' to be ' , without the thin i of the suffl.x the mutation of the root-vowel could not be accounted for : asith > isith > is. The th is the saine in origin as the t•of Latin ' est ', ' amat ' currit ', etc. In its modified form ' -iff ', it has survived in a few literary forms, as— aiff, goes ; caiff, obtains; gwnaiff, does , and Charles Edwards uses it in ' rhediff ' : " Ni rediff y süg O'r aeron . . . nes eu dryllio a'u gwascu." * Though the termination has disappeared except in a few sl»radic instances like the above it has left traces of itself in two particulars : (i) The frequent mutation of the internal vowel t in • See Clasuron Rhyddiaith Cymru Analogy here as elsewhere accounts for some forms. Thus the noun ' dichon' ( < digon enough, plenty, sußiem-y) has acquired a

 
(delwedd L1431) (tudalen 172)

  172 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY the third person is due to the i of the termination ; as— edrydd, gwyl, dengys, from adroddaf, gwelaf, dangosaf. (ii) The frequent use of -a in the 3rd person is no doubt largely an extension of the -a of Denominatives, to other verbs, as cana, cerdda, rheda, on the analogy of— cardota, cneua, dyfrha, etc., where the -a belongs to the stem. Still it seems in part derivable from the termination under review. The ending did not completely disappear. It was reduced to the ' natural a ' or ' obscure y ' sound, as so often happens with unaccented syllables (see chapter on the Article). The form it now takes is -a, a symbol which shares with -y in Welsh the work of representing this originally obscure sound. Compare ' hely ' and ' hela ', ' boly ' and ' bola ', ' ambell ' and ' ymbell ', etc. The a of Denominatives helped to determine the form. 5.—PAST IMPERFECT INDICATIVE.— Second person singular termination. In Early Mediæval Welsh, ' -ud ', ' ut verbal function due to the frequent dropping of the verb to in sentences containing the noun. On the analogy of so many verbs, some writers mutate it into ' dichyn.' That form is common in l)eff. Ffydd : Ni ddichyn hwnnw fod yn Gristion. It is occasionally used by other writers, as Rrwn irioed nis gweles un dyn, ac nis dichin i weled. Saleshury, New •rest. 397. Fe ddichyn fod rhai yn min•gammu. y P. O. Set.

 
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  THE VERB 173 " Py wyneb yssyd arnat ti pryt na delud y edrych y gofut a arnaf 176. " A bychan a rybychud 1m 'o gerdd, rym agwrdd ddrud.—"D. ab G. cxxrv. -ud, -ut, > -yd, -yt : Original long ' ' sound (as in ' swn ', ' 00 ' in English ' pool ') had a marked tendency in Welsh to unrounding and palatalization. Thus u of Latin ' tu ' (pronounce like English ' to '), and Old English ' thu ' ( > Modern and ' thou ') is the unrounded palatal i in Welsh ' ti ' • ' rhin ' is cognate with English ' rune'. The ' ' of the later Romano-British period has not advanced quite as far in literary Welsh, though outside Gwynedd it has colloquially the value of i rather than the standard u. Hence Latin ' pürus ', ' mürus ', have, by unround- ' mur '. ing, passed into Modern Welsh ' pur ' , One wide-spread result of the unrounding of u (w-sound) was to confuse it with y, which in final syllables had the same value as the u was now acquiring. The result is a very noticeable uncertainty in the use of u and y in final syllables. Thus in the Bruts and Mabinogion ' Kymry ' is the invariable form for both Welsh people and Wales, but in the sixteenth, seven- teenth, and eighteenth centuries a variant form in -u arose, and was used side by side with ' Cymry ' in both senses. The limiting of ' Cymru ' to denote Wales is a very modern distinction. Similarly ' melus' during the same period came to be almost invariably written ' melys ', and the verb-sufflx under discussion was changed from ' -ud ', ' -ut ', into ' -yd ', ' -yt ', as—

 
(delwedd L1433) (tudalen 174)

  174 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY " Goddau f' armerth, O'rn nerthyd, YW Dydd Barn a diwedd byd." G. O. y Farn. Finally, under the influence of the thin i of the pro- noun ti, which usually follows the verb, the suffix is now ' -id ', or rather ' -it due to the t of the pronoun. Third singular ' -ai ', older ' -ei ' : many writers— like Maurice Kyffln, Bishop Morgan, and Morgan Llwyd —continually use the simplified -e heard colloquially throughout Wales, as— " Canys y glust [a'm] clywe a'm bendithie." Llyvyr Job 63. The termination -iad occurs in one or two words, e.g.— " Ac na wydyat pwy ae lladei."—Mab. 41. " Nid adwaeniad odineb, Ni fynai nyn fi na ab G. x,XX1. " Nid oes, f' Arglwydd, a wyddiad Ei dymp, onid Ef a'i Dad."—G. O. y Farn. 6.—PAST IMPERFECT PLURAL— In Mediæval Welsh the terminations were regularly em -ewch ' , ynt The e Of the first and second persons is now commonly extended by analogy to the third— -em, -ech, -ent. But the modernity of the last form may readily be seen by reference to our older classics ; thus in the Mabino-

 
(delwedd L1434) (tudalen 175)

  THE VERB 175 gion v' -ynt ' is the invariable form, and it occurs on every page, e.g.— elynt (p. 85) ; tebygynt, cerdynt, gwelynt (all on p. 86) ; gwelynt (six times on p. 87) ; notteynt (88) ; peidynt, yttoedynt (90) ; oedynt, buasynt (91). The poets have resisted the change of ' -ynt ' into ' -ent ', due no doubt in part to the far larger number of words that can be found to rhyme with the old form. Still, the newer ending occurs even in poetry, and especially where rhyme requires it :— " Y n Ilinyn yno llanwent Hapus gylch Powys a Gwent." G. O. i Ofyn Ffrancod. " Rhoenl obaith ar weniaith wag." G. O. Y Maen Gwerthfawr. 7.—THE AORIST OR PRETERITE OR PAST INDEFINITE. —The regular termination of the third person singular in Modern Welsh is ' -odd ', as— dysgodd, gwelodd, canodd, rhedodd, lladdodd. Colloquially in Gwentian ' -ws ' is the common termina- tion, as— dysgws, gwelws, canws, rhedws, lladdws, while in Demetian -as is occasionally heard, as— gwelas. In Mediæval Welsh— -wys, -as, -awd, -es, -is,

 
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  176 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY all occur, and it may be safely said that in the Mabino- gion ' -wys ' and ' -as ' are quite as common as ' -awd '. " V gwyr a wiscwys ymdanunt."—Mab. 26—7. " Llyma heb wynt y tir a welas an harglwyd ni." Mab. 87. " Ac yna y dewissawd gwneuthur y gaer uchaf yn aruon idi."—Mab. 89. " A phan deffroes, hoedel nac einyoes na b»vyt nyt oed 85. ' Y neb a dechreuis vyn diua yssyd yn y orfen." Mab. 53. The ' -ws ' of Gwentian is a doublet of the ' -wys ' of the Mabinogion. In a few verbs the ' -dd ' (older ' -d ') of ' -odd ' is sometimes attached to the stem without a connecting vowel, as— cant for canodd, gwant for gwanodd, cymerth for cymerodd. The d is hardened into t by the adjoining n ; compare genti ' for ' ganddi ', common in mediæval literature and still used colloquially in some parts of Wales ; also— ynte < on'de < onide. The joining of the final consonant of the suffix to the stem without an intervening vowel is seen in llas, the aorist impersonal of ' lladdaf'. Thus while the

 
(delwedd L1436) (tudalen 177)

  THE VERB 177 fuller form ' lladded ' goes back to older ' lladet the variant ' llas ' is from ' llast' < ' llad-t '. Similarly ' wS•s' is from ' wyst' < ' ' wydt. For the change of d into s compare Latin ' est ', (cats) < ' ed-t ', and English ' wist ' < ' wit-te ', and ' must ' < ' mot-te '. The eclipsing or assimilation of the -t to the s in ' llas ' and 'wys' from ' llast ' and ' wyst' is a later change. The aorist plural regularly ended in -am, -awch, -ant, in mediæval literature :— 1st: ' Yn kwn a 52. ' Ai gwaeth i ddyn, gnviw ei thaid, Y n y llwyn ennill enaid, Na gwneuthur fal y gwneutham Yn Rhufain, acyn Sain Siam ? al) G. x. 2nd : " Ha wyr heb ef or gwnaethawch gam y mi digawn y buawch 67. 3rd : " A phan edrychyssant."—Mab. 46. " Ar gwraged a gyvodassant 223. In the change of a into o in the first and second persons, at least two influences have been at work :— (i) m is an essentially rounded consonant and tends to convert the unrounded medial a into the rounded and more guttural o. Compare— ' siom ', ' som ', from English ' sham '.

 
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  178 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY (ii) The growth of the inorganic * w before the ch of the second person yielded, in conjunction with the a, the diphthong ate, which is regularly simplified into o / in a final unaccented syllable, as— eiddo < Med. eidaw. Hence the modern endings of the plural aorist are. -orn, -och, -ant. An occasional instance of the change is found even in mediæval literature, e.g.— " Mae yr enw heb y penndaran dyuet. Gwri Wallt Euryn a dodyssorn ni arnaw ef. "—Mab 24. Third plural in ' -ont ' : even the ' -ant ' of the third person was occasionally changed into ' -ont ' by analogy: " Ymysc hynny wynt a glywsont chwedyldyaeth y wrth riannon."—Mab. 22. " Ac yn hynny rybud a gawssont wynteu."—Mab. 47. ' -ont ' occurs not infrequently in early Modern Welsh, as in Deffynniad Ffydd—gwnaethont (p. 120), cipiasont (133), rowsont (133), etc. So in Bishop Morgan's translation of the Bible, Llyfr y Tri Aderyn, and Drych y Prif Oesoedd ; but -ant ' never fell into disuse, and is now the invariable form except in the verb ' to be ', where both ' buont ' and ' buant ' are fully sanctioned. It should be noted that the ' -ont ' of ' buont ' is not • Or the w here may be an instance of metathesis, e.g.— gwelsachwi > gwelsawchi > gwelsawch.

 
(delwedd L1438) (tudalen 179)

  and compounds of ' bod ' ; adnabuant, canfuant, not adnabuont, caniuont. 8.—IMPERATIVE Much uncertainty is experienced by some writers over the correct form of the third person plural. It originally ended in ' -ent ' : Pan gl»vhont Ilef dy gorn disgynnent wynteu am ben y llys."—Mab. 14. In Modern Welsh, however, ' -ant' is the regular form : " Ond llawenycher y rhai cyfiawn, a gorfoleddant ger bron Duw; a byddant hyfryd o lawenydd." Ps. Ixviii. " Canys dywedant hwy a fynnont yng nghylch ei gnvreiddyn, a dygant eu tadauo 'Spaen . . . neu'r man y mynnont, nid y'nt Ond cymmysg o Ellrnyn a Brython."—Llythyrau Goronwy Owen 124. Maurice Kyfiin in Deffynniad Ffydd occasionally uses the Jussive Subjunctive instead of the Imperative : " Gwrandawont Barnard. "—105. (Let them listen to Barnard.) " Cystadlon.nhwy'n heglwysi ni, a'u helgwysi eu hun ; a nhwy a gant weled ddarfod iddynt hwy'n irwnt aruthr ymadel a'r

 
(delwedd L1439) (tudalen 180)

  THE used in the derivatives hence— VERB 179 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY So in— ' Ac aed Moses ei hun at yr Arglwydd ; ac na ddclont hwy, ac nac aed y bobl i fynu gyd ag cf." Ex. xxiv. 2. 9.—SUBJVNCTIVE PRESENT In Mediæval Welsh the second person singular ended in -ych ' : " Pa geluydyt yd awn ni wrthi heb y manawydan. Yr honn y mynnych or a wdam ni heb y pry- deri."—Mab. 48. " Ac o achaws y kewilyd a wnaethost di y Ilew llaw gyffes, na beidych ditheu dangos dy wyneb liw dyd vyth .. . ac na chollych dy enw."—Mab. 80. In Modern Welsh the sufflx is as often -ech as -ych ; thus in Matthew vi. we find pan wnelych."—vv. 2, 3. " A phan 5• " Ond tydi, pan weddiech." " Eithr pan ymprydiech di."—v. 17. ' -ot ' is sometimes met with—a modern back forma- tion from the third singular, which ends in ' -o : " Fel y mynnot, lesu anwyl , Ac nid fel y mynnaf fi."—W. A. Griffiths. (See Y Caniedydd Cynulleidfaol, hymn 531.)

 
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  THE VERB 10.—' Bon' AND ITS COMPOUNDS ; ' DYFOD ', ' GWNEUTHUR '. 181 ' MYNED ', These constitute a class by themselves, and may be referred to as the Second or Strong Conjugation. They all form their Aorist in ' -um ',* as— VERB-NOUN can fod gwybod dyfod gwneuthur myned PRES. INDIC. wyf, byddaf canfyddaf gwn deuaf, döf gwnaf af AORIST INDIC. bum canfum gwybum deuthumt gnvneuthunit euthurnt (a)—The verb ' to be ', as in English and other lan- guages, is very irregular. It is not proposed here, how- ever, to enter into a systematic analysis of the forms. Still, reference must be made to some of the more salient features of the verb : in ' ydwyf ', ' ydoedd ', etc., is Rela- tive Pronoun (cf. p. 152). As a proclitic it ••.vas written in Mediæval Welsh close up to the following word. Hence it was occasionally mistaken for a prefix, as here. In other instances the • Extended by analogy to roessum' (Mab. 45), roisym, William Salesbury, 1 Corinthians xiii. 11. After the unrounding of the • u' in Medieval Welsh, -ym was sometimes substituted for -um' in these verbs, especially in writings of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. Frequent instances occur in Llyfr y Tri Aderyn.

 
(delwedd L1441) (tudalen 182)

  182 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY ' y ' was detached and the -d prefixed to the next word, < yd anfonais y danfonais < yd arganiu. y darganfu The same pronoun is suffixed to the third singular ' ys ', yielding the relatival form y»dd '. Hence the relative pronoun should not be used with ' sydd ' • " Myfl yw'r hwn sydd tystiolaethu am danaf fy bun." John viii. 18. Contrast— " Canys y neb y mae yr Arglwydd yn ei garu, y mae yn ei geryddu."—Heb. xii. 6. And yet the ' y- ' of the verb ' ys ' is sometimes detached and assumes the function of the pronoun, e.g.— " Try allan ddynion tri-llu Y sydd, y fydd, ac a O. y Farn. " Beth a quewch chwi yn dihoeni ar dussw o wellt mor arw ag y sydd yna rhwng y creigydd ? " D. y P. O. 54. Similarly the relatival origin of ' yd- ' in ' ydoedd ', ydwyf ', is lost sight of in Modern Welsh writings. Hence the common use of the relative with these ex- tended forms. 5_ verb ' to be ' has distinct forms for the Simple and the Habitual Present : Simple Present : wyf or ydwyf ; wyt or ydwyt ; etc. Present Habitual : byddai; byddi; etc.

 
(delwedd L1442) (tudalen 183)

  THE VERB 183 It is interesting to note that in the derivatives and compounds of bod— the forms in ' -byddaf ' are Present (or Future) in func- tion, e.g.— canfyddaf, darfyddaf ; the forms in ' -wyf ' have rather the force of a Present Complete or Perfect. They are now obsolete. They were never common, and were almost entirely confined to the third singular, as— deryw, has happened ; cenyw, has seen ; deddyw, is come. " A unbennes heb ef pa deryw ytti."—Mab. 288. " A chan derw itt dywedut y geir a d»vedeist dyro vi 13. " Ar geniver dyn a doeth yno, ny dodyw vyth drache- vyn."—Mab. 291. " Wrthyt ti y mae vy neges i ac y erchi itt y dodwyf." (d)—The Present GWN and ADWAEN are , irregular. They are Past-Present verbs, like English ' can ', ' may ', and ' must ' ; that is, they are Past Tense forms which have come to be used as Presents. And as the English verbs just quoted show traces of the Past Tense inflection in that they do not add ' -s ' to the third singular, so these two .Welsh verbs form their plural and their second person singular on the model of such Aorists as bum, buost, bu, buom, buoch, buant (buont) :

 
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  184 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY gwydd-ost ; gwydd-om, -och, -ant. adwaen-ost ; adwaen-om, -och, -ant. (e)—Again, the Past Continuous of the verb ' to be ' is different from the Past Habitual :— Past Continuous: oeddwn, oeddit, etc. Past Habitual : byddwn, byddit, etc. The former at one time entered into the formation of derivatives and compounds, e.g.— hanoedd < hanfod. But now only the Past Habitual forms are so used, as— canfyddwn, darfyddwn. Another distinction is observable : The Past Habitual may be used in the Subjunctive, and its doublet bawn is confined to that mood. The Past Continuous, on the other hand, is essentially Indicative in Modern Welsh. But there is some evidence that ' oeddwn ', ' oeddit ', ' oedd ', etc., were formerly Subjunctive as well as Indicative :— " Kyn ny bei urenhin ar iwerdon da oed gennyfi ymdirioni ar mab."—Mab. 39. " Though he were not king o/ Ireland, yet willingly would I fondle lhe boy."—Lady Guest's translation. " lam,vnach oedd iddo' mofyn, Myn Oswallt a'i wallt yn wyn, Margen am gael dadeni, Na cheisio cich hudo chwi." D. ab G. CLXIII.

 
(delwedd L1444) (tudalen 185)

  D. ab G. CLXVII. " A gnvyclued oedd gael arnynt lawn olwg." Bardd Cwsc 5. (f)—The Aorist is ' bum and its derivatives and compounds should always end in that form, as— canfum, Cydnabum, gwybum, adnabum, not adnabyddais, canfyddais, cydnabyddais, gwybyddais. The latter forms are seldom if ever found in the THE VERB Gwell oedd nacCau ar ddau-air, Na chael addewid ni chair ! " (Sing.) 1. deuthum 185 classics of Welsh literature. ll.—THE AORIST OF 'DVFOD ', ' GWXECTIICR '. ' MYNED ', and The forms best sanctioned in mediæval literature deuthost 2. doe t host deuth 3. doeth (Plur.) I. doetham(-om) 2. doethawch 3. doethant deuthant

 
(delwedd L1445) (tudalen 186)

  euthum aethost aeth g«neuthum gwnaeth aetham(-om) gwnaetham(-om) aethawch aethant gwnacthawch gwnaethant 186 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY No change has taken place in the second and third verbs except that the ' -am ' of the first plural has be- come ' -om ', and the ' aw ' of the second plural is simplified into ' o '. The change in the first verb is considerable, in that it has been completely assimilated to the other two, so that its conjugation to-day is— deuthum, daethost, daeth ; daeth-om, -och, -ant.* The change is no doubt largely due to analogy, but these forms have also reached us along a different avenue and from a different source : the verb ' euthum ' detached the -d of the proclitic pronoun ' yd ' which so often preceded it in Mediæval Welsh, giving rise to the phrase— y deuthum < yd euthurn ; and as every going is a coming,—it all depends on the point of view,—the meaning offered no check to the change. The expression " I shall come to see you " is often heard for the better-sanctioned ' I shall go to see you ', and it is logically correct from the standpoint of the person addressed. It will be observed that the diphthong ' ae ' is mu- tated or affected into eu in the first person singular, due to the u of the following syllable. Occasionally a I have met with one instance of the later form in the Mab- unoguon : Vr neuad y daethant ac y yrnolchi. "—23.

 
(delwedd L1446) (tudalen 187)

  THE VERB 187 writer may be found who forgets this fact, and he will retain * the ' ae ' in that person too, e.g.— " Ond yn aderyn di yr aethymt i i'r yscol, ac yn gigfran ddü fel y gnveli y daethym i adref." Ll. y T. A. 163. But this is rare, and it is still rarer to extend the cu of the first person singular to the second or third person, or to the plural number. 12.—PLUPERFECT OF ' DYFOD ', ' MYNED ', AND ' GWNEUTHUR '. In Mediæval Welsh these were formed by adding the Past Continuous of the verb ' to be ' to a participial stem. They were not common, and were practically confined to the third singular and plural. Singular :— " A chadw y ragor val y gwnathoed kyn no hynny." Mab. 287. " Neut athoed hi heibaw."—Mab. 9. " Ac ny dothoed owein y nerth ettwa."—Mab. 190 Plural " A gwedy kaffel eu hangerd ac eu budugolyaeth yn Ilidyawc orawenus yn gytneit y gostygassant yr llawr am penn y gwyr a wnathoedynt lit a goveileint a chollet udunt kyn no hynny." Mab. 155. " .Ac ny dothoedynt yno narnyn ar gwr mwyhaf a garei bop un o nadunt gyt a 191. Or, extend it to that person by analogy. t For they in ' aethym,' daethym,' see supra.

 
(delwedd L1447) (tudalen 188)

  188 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY These forms are no longer in use, having been com- pletely ousted by the more modern— daeth-wn, aeth-wn, gwnaeth-wn, etc. (regular). 13.—PRESEXT SUBJUNCTIVE OF ' DYFOD ', ' MYNED ', AND ' GWNEUTHUR '. The third person singular of the regular verb ends In -O e.g.— dysgo, credo, rhedo. As ' dyfod ', ' myned ', and ' gwneuthur' have special stems in -l confined to the Subjunctive, the forms are already sufficiently differentiated, and the need of the ending -o is not felt. Hence the doublets— delo, del ; elo, el ; gwnelo, ' Yr wyt ti yn ei orchfygu ef yn dragywydd, fel yr elo efe Job 33. " Val nat el neb y gymry, ac a del yma o gymry cat-chara wynt hyt nat elont dracheuyn rac gwybot 34. ' A wnél, parhaed."—Bardd Cwsc 1. 14.—Other verbs of this class are— Verb-noun d wyn Pres. Indic. dygaf A 0". Indic. dugum gorugum, I did. The former is now largely assilililated to the first conjugation— dygais, dygaist, dygodd, etc.

 
(delwedd L1448) (tudalen 189)

  THE VERB 189 The latter is obsolete, but is very common in mediæval literature in the aorist :— Sing. : (i) — gorugum, gorum ; (ii) — gorugost ; (iii)—goruc. Pl. : Ist—gorugam ; 3rd—gorugant. 15.—This chapter will be closed with a reference to a verb of unusual interest—' ebr ' ebyr ' eb'r '). It is a deponent form in ' -r ' from the Arvan root ' sequ ' The older form of the word was ' hebr ' and ' hebyr '. For the change of ' s ' into ' h ' in Welsh, compare 'Severn' and Welsh ' Hafren ', Latin ' sol ' and Welsh ' haul ', Latin ' similis' and Welsh ' hafal ', etc. etc. Aryan ' qu ' is retained in Latin, but changed into 'p' in Welsh. Compare Latin ' quattuor,' ' quinque etc., with Welsh ' pedwar,' ' pump', etc. Very early the exceptional form of the termination ' -r ' or ' yr ' in a personal verb led to its being detached and re- garded as the definite article. Hence' we find in the Mabinogion, ' Heb y Pwyll ', ' Heb yr Hafgan ', the ' yr ' losing its ' -r' before consonants, as is usual with the article. Where the definite article is not required, the verb is written ' heb 'simply, as ' hebhi ', ' heb ef', 'heb wynt ', etc., Passim in the Mabinogion. Ellis Griffith (time of Edward VI) writes ' hebyr yr abad, hebyr ywain ', quite correctly. So Ellis Wynne in Bardd Cwsc has ' ebr ' (pp. 6, 7,

 
(delwedd L1449) (tudalen 190)

  190 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY etc.), but he is not quite free from the idea of the article, e.g.— " Edrych yrwan, eb yr Derivatives of this word are ' ateb ', ' gohebu ', ' diareb'. Hebrwng io accompany, escort, is from the same root.

 
(delwedd L1450) (tudalen 191)

  CHAPTER Xll ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND CONJUNCTIONS I. ADVERBS I.—ADVERBS are, for the most part, derived from other parts of speech, and this chapter will be confined to a brief discussion of their etymology. Prepositional phrases are adverbial in their function generally ; thus— day by day in the morning with confidence are equivalent to— daily early confiden tly 2.—A number of adverbs in Welsh are merely pre- positional phrases, as— i fyny ( < i -F mynydd) ; ar 01; i waered ; and if we are right in supposing the predicative yn to be prepositional in origin,* the list'0f adverbs from pre- positional phrases can be indefinitely multiplied, as yn dda yn gynnar yn ddiau Many phrases are written as one word ; e.g.— drachefn drannoeth echdoe erioed oddeutu Compare en in French : Il a agi en roi, behaved royally. vivre en sauvage, to live like a savage. 191

 
(delwedd L1451) (tudalen 192)

  192 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY ' Drachefn ' is from tra 4- ei her + cefn, and it is now used without reference •to the pronoun wliich enters into its composition. In Mediæval Welsh other forms were sometimes used, as— draegeuyn (3rd sing. masc.) : " Or Ile y doeth Mab duw o nef ydymchoeles islaw draegeuyn. "—Ystorya 22. drae keuyn (3rd plural) : " Ac ny wydynt gerdet rac ovyn namyn ac eu hwyneb drae keuyn."—Mab. 79. Similarly, ' erioed ' is from er -+- i his -4- oet. The phrase containing the pronoun of the first person singular was at one time common, as— " A diheu oed iti Gei na weleis i eirmoet bwyt na llynn ny welwn yno y gyffelyp."—Mab. 165. ' Arwydd na fynwn eiriawl, Wyro ermoed, air O'r mawl."—l). ab G. cxxll. 3.—Others are merely truncated phrases or sen- tences : Dyma < Dyna < Dacw < I-lyma < ' Ac wel dy yna dy

 
(delwedd L1452) (tudalen 193)

  gwel di yma. yna. acw. gwel yrna or syll yma. nab arglwydes heb y Teirnon." Mab. 23. ADVERBS, ETC. 193 In the following the phrase is already stereotyped, and the dy has lost its special pronominal force : ' Wel dy yma ynni dynot da yn rat ac yn dilauur heb wvnt." Mab. 273. Mae'l ' or ' mae fel meaning would that, occurs in a few eighteenth-century writings. as in Bardd cwsc, Llythyrau Goronwy Owen, and those of the Morusiaid : " Mae fel y rhowch iddo wers, a dau dro a banner ar ei G. O. 128. ' Ai?' stands for a, + i=is. Hence its use with parts of speech other than the verb. < i, is + el, and therefore = it is. nage < nac + ef. felly < fellny < fel hynny. nis, nas; the s has been discussed in the chapter on Pronouns. nid, nad: (i) before verbs the -d is euphonic, as— Nid yw efe yrna. Gwelwn nad ymchwelent hebddo. (ii) before other parts of speech the -d is verbal in origin and function : nid hwn yw efe." Lit. : it is-not this one he is. onid < the interrogative a (i) + nid.

 
(delwedd L1453) (tudalen 194)

  194 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY unwaith. dwvwaith, etc. < the numerals, + gwaith ' meaning time, cognate with Irish ' fecht ' 4.—Some adverbs are purely pronominal in origin, as po ablative of the Interrogative Pronoun. Compare how, why. ablative of who ; and the with comparatives, as. " the more the merrier "; the is the ablative of the Old English Demonstrative. So' y'. ' yr' yd,' ydd ') are the same as the Relative Pronoun (q.v.). As adverbs they are introductory in function. The change from pronoun to adverb may be thus explained : Pronoun : Yn y ty yr oeddwn. Lit. (It was) in the house in which I was. Then, largely through the apparently simple character of the sentence, the pronotninal force of ' yr ' was ob- scured, and the word came to be looked upon as a verbal particle, and therefore liable to be moved about "ith the verb. Hence its use in a perfectly normal sentence as merely an introductory verbal particle or adverb : Yr oeddwn yn y ty. The changes in English there from (1) an oblique case of the Demonstrative to (2) an Adverb of Place, and finally into (3) an Introductory Adverb. as " There is no place like home," show a closelS' parallel develoément. 5.—Several adverbs are derived from pronominal prepositions of the second person singular :—

 
(delwedd L1454) (tudalen 195)

  ADVERBS, ETC. 195 (i) ' isod ', ' uchod and the now obsolete ' yngod ' : Blwng "Tth y bobl yngod."* (Sewere to the People here.) (ii) In a cases the final ' -d ' is softened into '-dd ' : tanodd, trosodd, trwodd. (iii) In others it is lost altogether : ' Yno ', whence the later variant ' yna occurs 111— " Cronigl y iaith cywrain glod, A'r dwned, a roed ynod."t iso for isod : Ac yn iach fy nghår arab, Iso'n fy rnyw, Siön fy mab."t ' yngo' ( < ' yngod' ; see above): " Pettwn hebddo, yngo angerdd, Aed fyd cof, adfydig cerdd. " ' ; ' ynod ' D. ab G. cxxvll. t' Mi a welaf longeu •racco heb y brenhin."—Mab. 26. The r in this word was mistaken for the Definite Article and detached. The o, too, has been changed into w, so that the modern word is ' acw '—a form not found in mediteval literature. heibio. • Quoted in Pughe and Pryse's Dictionary, t See Mr. Arthur llughes's Cyøyddau Cymru," p. 166 and note. Ibid., p. 70 and note.

 
(delwedd L1455) (tudalen 196)

  196 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY Il. PREPOSITIONS 1.—Several Welsh prepositions have a variety of mean- ings, and their correct use is one of the first concerns of the student and the teacher. The following are a few of the most important : am : on the other side o/ , beyond ; within : " Kerdassant hyt pann deuthant am y nagwyr ar karcharawr."—Mab. 131. " Gweled serchawgddyn golau I)rwy goed y glyn, ni'm syn serch Am y maenfur a meinferch." D. ab G. CLXXIV. " A meibion Israel a wersyllasant yn rhosydd Moab am yr lorddonen a Jericho."—Numbers xxii. 1. = at : yn chwerthin am eu " A chwithe'n y Werddon penneu. "—Bardd Cqsc 103. ar = to : " Ac erchi udunt wynteu ymchoelut ar Chyarlymaen ac erchi idaw y arhos."—Ystorya 8. " Ac val y gwyl chyarlys yn eisted ar y bord." Ystorya 14. Ar y torr ef " ( = against him, in defiance o/ him). Brutieu 138. So Dafvdd ab Gwilym, addressing Gruffydd Gryg : " Af i Wynedd aml wledd ym Ar dy dor, wr du dirym."—cxxv. A large number of examples will be found in the author's Welsh and English Exercises.'

 
(delwedd L1456) (tudalen 197)

  ADVERBS, ETC. 197 oddi : The second element is ' di ' (whence modern i) in its original sense of from, like its cognate Latin de The earlier meaning is still retained by the preposition i in such phrases as— y tu hwnt i'r aion. o : In Mediæval Welsh two prepositions of this form are met with : (i) o ' (from). (ii) o' < ' do cognate witli English to, and Oi that meaning. Both prepositions occur in the following sentence :— " A chyghori a wnaethant y eu tywyssawc mynet yr demyl ac aberthu yr dwywes. A gofyn pa wlat y presswylei oe [ i'w] chyuanhedu yn dragy- wydawl idaw ac oe [ = i'w] etiued. Ac o gyt- gyghor y kymerth brutus geryon dewin. A deudec oe [ = o'i] henafgwyr y gyt ac ef ac y daethant hyt y demyl."—Brutieu 51—2. i: (i) o', from, Latin ' de '. (See ' oddi ' above.) (ii) in, at, by ; as— i'th law : in thy hand, by thee. " I'r nef ar air Naf yr O. yr Awen. (iii) to ; its usual meaning in Modern Welsh. myn (lit. = my) is an instance of a possessive adjec- tive acquiring a prepositional function. It is bor- rowed from French ' mon ', as used in Mon Dieu (my God, by God),

 
(delwedd L1457) (tudalen 198)

  198 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY commonly occurring as an oath. It is therefore a cognate of Welsh ' fy ' : " Yr ydwyf beunydd yn marw, myn eich gorioledd, yr hon sydd gennyf yng Nghrist lesu ein Har- Cor. xv. 31. 2.—The orthography of the preposition ' yn ' + a noun with initial ' c- ' or ' g- ', has always presented peculiar difficulties. In early writings like the Mabinogion we find ' Y'gkaer, yngkaer '. Ellis Griffith (time of Edward VI) writes ' ynghymru '. Dr. Morgan, in his translation of the Bible (1588), has ' yngardd, yng-hylch, yng- Hrist ', on the same principle as he writes ' fyng-nhawd, In Dr. Davies' fyng-hyfnewidiad, fyng-hamreu '. Grammar (1621 ed.) we find ' yng-nghanol, ynghanol ' and Morgan Llwyd writes ' ynghroth, yngolwg ' ; Ellis Wynne, in Bardd Cwsc, has ' yn Ghaer, yn ngraddeu ' In Drych y Prif Oesoedd we have ' yng-Hymru ' (p. 11); also ' ynghymru ' (p. 12), ' yng Heredigion ' (p. 70), ' yng Hwch ' (p. 97), etc. The ' yn ' in all cases is a proclitic, but the phrases into which it enters vary in natural emphasis. There seems a practical unanimity among the best writers that ' yn ' should be written as part of the next word in the less emphatic phrases, e.g. ' ynghylch ' just as we also write ' ymhob ', ' ymhen ', etc. Where the emphasis, however, is greater, the spelling ' yng Nghymru, yng ngardd ', etc., has been recommended. While this lacks sufficient authority, it is not even phonetic. The analogy of ' fy nghnawd, fy nghamreu ',

 
(delwedd L1458) (tudalen 199)

  ADVERBS, ETC. 199 etc., older fyng-nhawd, fyng-hamreu etc., suggests ' y' Nghymru, y'ngardd the apostrophe indicating that the first word is still v.Titten ' yn ' when alone, and the separation of the elements of the phrase leaving it possible for a proper name, as ' Cymru ', to begin with a capital letter. The unmutated ' yn ' is used by some write's before nouns in p-, b-, c-, g-, denoting time or place : e.g. yn Mangor, yn Nghaer. But this is a violation of an important principle oi sound-change. The peposition and the noun form a phrase-unit, and are almost as intimately connected as the prefix and a root in a derivative. It is a principle of phonology that the initial consonant of the root assimilates the final consonant of the prefix. Thus, in English, the con- of connect is col- in collect, cor- in correct, and com- in company. Similarly the -n of the Welsh preposition ' yn ' becomes ym ' before p- or b-, and ' yng' before c- or g, even before these initial con- sonants are nasalized. IIA. PRONOMINAL PREPOSITIONS 1.—The most striking characteristic of Welsh Ijreposi- tions is the fact that a large number* of them can be • With only one or two exceptions, the prepositions that can be conjugated are also those which govern the soft mutation. Both facts, in so far as they are not due to analogy, ptiint to a common cause : most of these prepositions origin.illy ended in a vowel ; conseqttently the agglutination of the following pronoun was readily effected and also the softening or lenation of the mitial consonant of the next word.

 
(delwedd L1459) (tudalen 200)

  zoo WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY conjugated by means of pronominal suffixes. Their con- jugation consists of three types determined by the vowel connecting the pronominal suffix of the first person and the preposition, and they may be accord- ingly termed the A the 'O and the ' Y' conjuga- tions : (Sing.) 1. 2. 3. (Plur.) r. 2. 3. m. danaf danat dano dani danom danoch danynt o hebof hebot hebddo hebddi heborn heboch hebddynt wrthyf wrthyt wrtho wrthi wrthvm wrthych wrthynt In Mediæval Welsh ohono/ followed the first or ' A ' conjugation, thus— (Sing.) ohonafi, ohonaf ; ohonat ; ohonaw (m.). ohonei (f.). (Plur.) ohonam ; ohonawch ; ohonunt. The 3rd pers. plu. in Early Welsh ended in -u,* (-udd). The addition of -nt in Med. W., and the later change of '-It-' into '-y-', were made on the analogy oi the 3rd plu. past impf. and plupf. of the verb. Other changes must also be noted : (i) The ' -y- ' of the first and second person singular of the Third or ' Y ' Conjugation is an instance of re- Very rare in mediæval literature, but note— V kennadeu a gyrchassant ra,'du ( rhagddynt). —Mab. 37.

 
(delwedd L1460) (tudalen 201)

  ADVERBS, ETC. 201 version to the mediæ•val type after an interval when the vowel was ' i ', the ' y ' having been mutated into this thin sound by the ' i ' oi the pronoun : wrthyfi > wrthifi > methif vvrthyti > wrthiti > wrthit Blin gennit ti am ddyfod [hyn] i ti'n awr." I.lyvyr Job 9. Onid [ydywl fy amddefiyn gennifi ? " Ibid. 14. (ii) In Mediæval Welsh a -w- appeared before the ch of the second person plural ; as, ' danawch ', ' gennwch ', It was either excrescent before ch, as it ' wrthvwch '. ' uwch ', or the w of ' -chwi ' by meta- is in ' buwch thesis, as in— iwch < iwchi < ichwi ', ' ohonadunt (iii) The extended forms ' arnadunt ' onadunt ', ' danadunt ' in the third plural were once conunon. 2.—The preposition i with the pronoun of the first and second persons forms rather unstable ccnnpounds. Hence the variant forms :— 1. 2. Singular i ti, iti, it 3. m. iddo f. iddi Plural nl, inni, in i chwi, ichwi, iwch iddvnt iddynt For instances of the conjugated first and second per- sons the reader may be referred as follows :—

 
(delwedd L1461) (tudalen 202)

  202 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY for im, Mab. 189 ; ym, Mab. 196, 198. , iti, Mab. 165 ; ytt, Mab. 207 ; ytti, Mab. 164. in, Mab. 165, 189 ; ynn, Mab. 47 ; ynni, Mab. 207. ywch, Mab. 207, 263. The 3rd plural in Mediæval Welsh was udunt, the preposition 'i' being assimilated to the; 'u' of the suffix. 3.—It is a noteworthy fact that while the preposition i regularly governs the soft mutation, as— i feddwl i dy it is followed by the radical in ' mi ', ' minnau ', ti ' tithau The explanation is found in the pronominal preposi- tion : the final d of the second person singular is pro- vected into t due to the t oi the frequently post- fixed pronoun ti ' , t danad ti > danatti or danati > danat hebod ti > hebotti or heboti > hebot wrthyd ti > wrthytti or wrthyti > wrthyt and id ti > itti or iti > iti or it Now, ' iti ', as was said above, is a very unstable compound, and is readily disintegrated into ' i ti Hence the apparent violation oi the law of mutation. Analogy would account for— i tithau < i dithau, and probably for— i rni, and i minnau.

 
(delwedd L1462) (tudalen 203)

  ADVERBS, ETC. Ill. CONJUNCTIONS 203 l.—ac : Welsh regularly softens a simple final surd into the corresponding sonant. if a vowel precedes. Ac is an exception in Modern Welsh. The form is some- what artificial, and has been retained, or reverted to, from a desire to represent a variety of function by a difference in spelling. Hence the doublets ' ac' (and), 'ag' (as), and ' åg' (with). The distinc- tion has not been always observed, and in Deffyn- niad Fiydd the word for and is regularly written Ac ' is usually pronounced ' ag ', and in 'ag'. ' cynghanedd ' its c is allowed to alliterate with ' g' • Ac yn ei dull, Gwen a'i dwg.* ' ac ' is shortened into ' a ' before consonants. Hence it is not correct to write ' ac fod' for 'a bod '. 2.—Some conjunctions are pronominal in origin. ' Pan' , like its English equivalent when. is an oblique case of the Interrogative. In Media•val Welsh it had a much wider meaning than it has to-day ; thus, in addition to its present force of when, it stood for— (i) whence: " Py le pan doei ? "—Mab. 204. (ii) that, when in conjunction with ' yw ' " Ny thebygassei aigolant etwa panyw Chyarlys oed • See Farddol," p.

 
(delwedd L1463) (tudalen 204)

  204 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY ' Pan ' should not be followed by the Relative. Hence— Pan ddel not pan y del. Pan glywodd , pan y clywocld. It governs the soit mutation— Pan ddel, not pan del. ' Pan mae ' is an exception, if the phrase is allowed to stand ; it is a modern construction, and it is doubtful if it has gained any literary sanction. ' Yw' is the correct form with ' pan Tile reader will have noticed pan yw above—a phrase of common occurrence in early writings. Other examples are : " Pan yw fy nhad a'm mam yn fy ngwrthod, yr Arglv.ycld a'm derbyn."—Psalm xxvii. 10. Pan yw yn dywedyd celwydd, O'r eiddo ei hun y mae yn dywedyd.' —John viii. 44. " Fel taith ar foreu rhewllyd. pan yw'r gwaed A'r pen yn gloywi'n min yr awel lem." Elfed, y Sabboth yng Nghymru. And in the plural— pan ydynt, nol pan maent. ' Pan ydynt yn peri enwaedu'r galon."-—Edw. S. 125. Nes requires the same construction— ' Y mae yr Eryr yn gwasgu at y Gigfran yn fwy difrifol, nes yw hithau O'r diwedd yn blino." Darlithiau Dr. Edwards, 142.

 
(delwedd L1464) (tudalen 205)

  ADVERBS, ETC. " Mae un yn dal ei ddrychfeddyliau clir O flaen y dori mewn vmresymiad coeth, Nes yw'r gwirionedd heb gymylog len Vn edrych yn eu llygaid." 205 Elfed, y Sabboth yng Nghymru. os : The s of os is of double origin— i. It is often the Post-vocalic or Infixed Personal Pronoun, as in— ' Mi a ddywedaf wrtho os gwelaf.' I shall tell him if 1 see him. And though its pronominal function is now ob- scured, the rule whereby the verb must immedi- ately follow the infixed pronoun is strictly observed. Hence— os daw, not os y daw. os y bu. os bu ii. When followed by any part of speech other than a verb, the s stands for 'ys', 3rd sing. of 'wyf ', e.g.— " Os myfi yr ydych yn ei geisio, gadewch i'r rhai hyn fyned ymaith "—St. John xviii. 8. Lit. I/ it is I whom ye seek, let these go their way. y and yr (older—yd) are identical with the Rela- tive. Both are probablv Demonstrative in origin. Compare the Latin cognate id and English it. The change of function from pronoun to conjunction finds an exact parallel in the Englisll that, which. etymologically, is the neuter of the Demonstrative.

 
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  206 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY The transition is not difficult of explanation in English. The stages are these : — (i) ' He will come,—l know that ' (ii) Then, with he will come' understood or ex- pressed earlier, simply I know that ' ; and (iii) ' He will come ' is appended in apposition to that for the sake of clearness; thus— ' I know that (viz.) he will come.' (iv) That in (iii) readily acquires a conjunctional force. As ' y ' yr ', ' yd ') has lost its Demonstrative power, the alteration of function is not as easily demonstrated. 3.—Some conjunctions are verbal in origin : Pe < bei, the third singular past imperfect sub- junctive of the verb ' to be Compare the semi- conjunctional force of the auxiliary verb in English when brought to the beginning of the sentence, as— Were I to go Should he come Ys in canys. Mai is a doublet of mae : If I were to go. I/ he should come. ' Llyma vy ffyd mae mi ae rannaf."—Mab. 206. " Coelia fy rhiain fain hir, A gwS'l ddihareb mae gwir."—D. ab G. CLXIII. Taw : now obsolete as a verb. Compare Irish ' tä ' (is).

 
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  CHAPTER NIII COMPOSITION AND DERIVATION AND THE MEANING OF WORDS I.—WITH the exception of a few hundred words taken from Latin, mainly during the Romano-British period, Welsh has, on the whole, successfully resisted the intro- duction of borrowed words. It has preferred to supply new words by forming compounds and derivatives from native elements—a characteristic also of Greek and Modern German. English at one time possessed the same power, but with the great influx of Norman- French words during the early Middle English period composition fell into desuetude, and to-day the lan- guage is open to the taunt, not infrequently levelled against it, that the bulk of its vocabulary is not English at all. Whether it is to the ultimate advantage of a nation to coin and build up out of its own store, and decline to adopt many words of foreign origin, is a debatable question. But a comparison of English and Welsh, as typical of two languages following divergent paths for the extension of their vocabulary, brings out one or two salient facts worthy of attention. (a) Native words are always richer in associations, and Welsh is a language of great emotional suggestion. Its words are redolent of our hills and dales. They

 
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  208 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY pulsate with the trials and struggles, the failures and triumphs, of the past. Hence it is sometimes called the language oi the heart. The same fact accounts for the criticism, in the case of English, that an address or an essay, except on a technical subject, sounds in- sincere or unreal if it contains a large number of foreign words to the exclusion of more expressive and simpler native synonyms. The vocabulary of the " Pilgrim's , and that book is Progress " is remarkably " pure ' always mentioned as evidence of the power and effectiveness of the unpolluted English language." Macaulay has referred * to it as possessing " a strong For magnificence, for human interest." and adds: pathos, for vehement exhortation, for subtle disquisi- tion, for every purpose of the poet. the orator, and the divine, this homely dialect, the dialect of plain working men, was perfectly sufficient." (b) But a weakness is inseparable from this excel- lence. It is difficult to divest a native word of Inis- leading associations. Where precision is imperative, it is important that a word be found free from disturbing and irrelevant suggestion. Hence. for technical and scientific purposes, it conduces to lucidity to borrow words to which we can attach tlue precise meanings required. (c) An intelligent borrowing will enrich a language with synonyms expressive of the most delicate shades Of difference in meaning, as Palernal and fatherly, • Review of Southey's edition of the Pilgrim's Progress."

 
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  DERIVATION OF WORDS 209 vulgar and common, commence and begin. Welsh has to depend almost entirely upon its own resources for this purpose ; but a few illustrations may be given of of borrowing. as sych and hest), hwyr the advantage and hir, cetivl and ebol. That Welsh can and does rather effectively meet the demand out of its native stock may be readily shown, as brawd and brodor, poblog and fioblogttidd. rhwymau and rhwymedigaethau, delwi and delweddi, caledi and caledrwydd, iechyd and i a chawdwriaeth. (d) The ease with which derivatives and compounds can be formed in Welsh, as in German, has led to their multiplication, not always to differentiate meanings, but, too frequently, to save the writer or speaker the trouble to look for existing forms, or to give him the air of extensive learning. Such unwieldy forms as bradwriaeth, cospedigaeth, creadigaeth, Cymreigaidd, hanesvddiaeth, Seisnigaidd are often used where brad, cosp, cread. Cymreig. hones, Scisnig would be in every way better. (e) There is a very decided advantage in having the words that are related in meaning connected also in Their study gives the speaker a more form and origin. real grip on speech, and the analysis of complex forms not only enlarges a student's vocabulary, but also gives him greater precision in the use of terms. Thus he will trace— Brawd, judgment, in brawdle, brawdlys, brawdwr, brawdlvfr, adirawd, difrod.

 
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  210 WEI.SH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY Delw, in del, delwi, delweddi, delwig, anelwig, arddel, arddeliad, cerfddelw, cvnddelw. Awch, in hogi, hogfaen, annog. egni, yni. diog; English to egg. Latin acus, acer, acies. The root of— Gwn, English know. Latin (g)nosco, in gnawd, adnabod, cydnabod, ynad, anynad, dirnad, cadno, gwyddno Tudno. I-law. in Iloffa, Iloffton, Ilofrudd, Ilofnod, llvffethair, llawethar, dvlofi, Ilofelu, canllaw. Llwg, English light, Old English liht, in amlwg, eglwg, golwg, gorllewin, Ilewyrch or Ilewych, goleu, Ileuad, llugorn, Lug (a river running eastward towards the light ; contrast Wyre), Lligwy. Llun, shape. form, in adlun, afluniaidd, arlun, arlunydd, cerflun, cynllun. darlun. dilun. eilun, KAVTthlun, rhagluniaeth, etc. Tud (cognate with Teuton. Old English theod = people, nation ; 2—country) in alltud, tudwedd, Ardudwy, Tudur, Tudno, I.landudno. Instances might be multiplied, but the above will suthce at this stage to show wluat a fruitful field of study lies here for the Welsh student. 2.—MANY WORDS ARE READILY ANALYSED, as— < af, not rhyw, genus, class + iog, adjec- tival suffix, and therefore parallel in tneaning, as in construction, to English degenerate.

 
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  DERIVATION OF WORDS 211 anhydyn, obstinate, stubborn, < an- not, + hy-, easy, -able, + tynnu, and therefore literally = not easily chwilfrydedd < chwil, chwilio, + bryd, mind, decision, + abstract noun suffix -edd. diledryw < di-, not, -F Iled, rather, somewhat, not, + rhyw, and so = not degenerate. drycin < drwg, + hin. hunllef, nightmare, < hun, sleep, + lléf. olynol < 01 -+- yn + 01, in the track of, successive. pendramwnwgl, headlong, < pen, -+- tra, beyond, in front, before, + mwnwgl, neck. yrnddiofrydu. < yrn- (reflexive). + di- (negative), + go, somewhat, not, + bryd, + verb-noun sufftx -u, and so to resolve, vow. ymennydd < yn + pen + -ydd, what is in the head, brain. ysywaeth < ysy(dd) + waeth, ysy(dd) itself coming from the verb ys + the pronoun ydd, now yr. (See Relative Pronouns.) or words of like sound but of different tneaning, slu»uld be carefully distinguished ; e.g.— Ber, ier, mer in adfer, beria, cymeryd, Cymer, are variant forms of a Welsh word cognate with English

 
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  212 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY bear, I-atin kero ; while fer. mer in diferu, dadmer, gofer, are doublets of mer. a drop. fluid. Cån (a song) in adargan ; can (white, Latin candidus) in Iloergan ; can ( < cant, a hundred) in canwriad ; can, with, in canllaw, canfod. Gwén, a smile, in crechwen ; gu•en, fern. of gwyn, in Blodwen, Olwen, heulwen haul was fem. in Mediæval Welsh (v. chapter on Gender) ; hence wen, and not wyn. Llys, false, in dilys, dilysiant, llysenw; llys, hall, palace, court, in llvsdy, Henllys, l.lyswen (v. chapter on Gender) ; llys, slime, snivel, in llysnafedd ; llys, a herb, in myglys, rhionllys. 4.—Loss OF WORDS Many words have fallen out oi use and have been replaced by others. Thus hobeu was no longer familiar in the dialect when the Mabinogi of Math assumed its present form : " Pwy y henw heb ef. Hobeu arglwyd. Pa rvw aniueileit yw y rei hynny, aniueileit bychein gwell eu kic no chic eidon, bychein ynt wynteu. Ac y maent yn symudaw enweu. Moch y gelwir weithon 60. But the word is still in use in the compounds ' nerob ' and ' horob ' (a flitch o/ bacon) < ' banner 110b,' and even the simple word remains in the title— " Hob y deri dan db,"

 
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  DERIVATION OF WORDS 213 which meant that the swine oi the forest had been slaughtered and hung up to dry under the roof, ready for the winter. Llad, a /avour, kindness, good, is scarcely in use to-day, but it occurs in llatai, lladai, a bearer o/ 'avows, a love messenger : " Y ddilediaith (Ida ab G. Penllad, summum bonum, the highest good ; afrllad (sing. afrlladen), wafers : " A'i flas fel airllad o xvi. 31. anllad ; anlladrwvdd. Rhod in beddrod. ' Bedd ', of course, is still in common use, and is probablv a doublet of ' bawdd ', ' boddi the change of vowel being an illustration of the law of Ablaut or Gradation. It has nothing to do with ' Rhod ' is different. ' rhod a wheel, and must be referred back to Irish ' rath ', a mound, earth wall. Celtic ' ratis ', It occurs dialectallv as ' rath ' in Pembrokeshire, and in the place-names Roath, Amroth. It is, therefore, interesting that the heaping up oi the earth on a grave above the surrounding ground not only is a perpetuating of the old cromlech, mound, and cairn of early times, but is also de- noted in language by the last element of this compound. Cledd is no longer used for left, but the derivative

 
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  214 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY ' gogledd ' is common enough. And the term re- minds us that the points of the compass were named in relation to an observer looking eastward to the rising sun : dwyrain < dy (intensive), + a root seen in Latin ' oriens ', whence Orient ior the east. This term occurs in ' arwyrain ' Panegyric ; ' dwyre ', to rise ; and ' Wyre ', a river rising in the east of Cardiganshire and running west to Cardigan Bay. To an observer thus facing the east, the north would be to his left, and the south—dc—to his right (dehcu). Old Welsh i (<di), in the sense of from, cognate with Latin de is now rare. As it was gradually super- seded, o was prefixed to explain its force in the preposition ' oddi.' Ysgyfarnog, a hare, is a familiar word ; but the Old Welsh ' ysgyfarn ', an ear (Cornish ' scevarn ', Breton ' scouarn is no longer used. Ysgy- farnog ', lit. = the long-eared one. Tud is now familiar only in its derivatives and com- pounds, as ' tudwedd ', ' alltud ', etc. (see above). The last-named word is identical, part for part, with Old English ' el-theod ', a strange nation, whence ' eltheodig ', a foreigner. ' Theod ' was Latinized by the Romans into ' Teut- ', ' Teuton ', and the meaning of these words, and of Old Irish ' tuath ', a people, points to the fact that ' Tud ' meant a people, a nation, before it was applied to the land or country occupied by them. Plenty of

 
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  DERIVATION OF WORDS 215 words of a parallel development could be men- tioned, as Essex, Wessex, Middlesex. Sussex ( = East, West, Middle, and South Saxons), Norfolk, Suffolk, etc., where the application of the terms to the land is derived from their denotation of the people. Whence we may legitimately infer that Cymry ' was a tribal name before it became terri- torial under the modern form ' Cvmru ' ,* as we know is the case, too, v.ith ' Wales ' from Old English ' Wealas ', meaning foreigners. 5.—PLEOXASTIC COMPOUNDS, like ' greyhound ' and ' hobby-horse ' in English, are not uncommon in Welsh. Reduplication is generally due to one of two causes : (a) The wish to emphasize a word, as— angenrhaid, deubar (a couple), swyngyfaredd. (b) The need of explaining a word falling out of use, or disguised in form, by a more familiar equivalent ; Tawlbwrdd < tabl ( < English or French table) -i- b"Tdd ; oddi < o, from. added to explain the Old NVelsh ' i ', ' di ', from, cognate with Latin 'de'. The following are additional exatnples of pleonastic compounds in Welsh— Aergad ; boncyff ; bwystfil ; certwyn < Middle English cart + wain; cilfach ; chwibl-sur ; Kymry is the invariable form in the Mabinogion and the Brutieu for Ix»th Welsh and Wales.

 
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  216 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY coedwig ; cyfan-gwbl ; chwil-dro ; gnvyr-gam ; milgi ; mygdarth ; rhuddgoch. 6.—MANY WORDS ARE SO DISGUISED AND CORRUPTED that some knowledge of the principles of phonetic change and of the operations of popular etylnology is necessary to discover their origin ; e.g.— awrlais, by popular etymology from Middle English ' horlage ', horloge ', French ' horloge '. It ap- pears, with a modified meaning and in a less corrupt form, as orloes in— " GMTddlef telyn ag orloes. Gormodd rhodd, gwr meddw a'i rhoes." D. ab G. cxax. barlys owes the form of its second element to an attempt at translating ' -ley ' (a doublet of leek, and of lock in ' hemlock ' and lic in garlic ') of English ' barley ' .A similar but bolder step was taken in turning English poplar ' into Welsh ' poplys ', unless this word be directly from Latin populus bodo, the familiar term in North Cardiganshire for aunt ', is a shortened fortn of ' Inodryb ', with the ' -o' of efidearrnent at the end (v. Ohapter on Diminutives). The interchange of m and b is one of the best-attested facts in Welsh phonology. Compare benyw ' and ' menyw '. Hence Inod- fedd ' for 'bawd ' 4 medd,' cognate with English mete measure. Also modrwy' from ' bawd 4- rhwyi ', for it was a regular custom up to the seven-

 
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  DERIVATION OF WORDS 217 teenth century to wear rings on thutnbs as well as on the other fingers; -rhwyi ' is a doublet of ' rhwvrn ' rhwymyn and rneans a band. Com- pare aerwy ' breichrwyfeu ' (Mab.). ' cyfrwy ', etc. breicliled : a partially translated form of English and bracelet ' ' Braich ' equals French bras ', French ' arm, and ' -let ' is a diminutive suffix. For the softening of final ' -t ' in Welsh. cotnpare ' cwpled ' and soned ' from English ' couplet ' and sonnet ' Some writers, like Glyn Cothi, saw Iledr ', leather, in the last element and duly added the r : " Gwisgaw breichledr, os medraf, O arian neu aur a wnaf." The same attempt at " rationalizing " a suffl.x is observable in the etymology often given to can- wvllarn ' ' coesarn ', llwvarn ', etc. The sound r is apt to develop an inorganic or epenthetic n after it, as in •ar-n-af ' (contrast •at-af ' miswrn' < English ' visor'; and the substantival suffix -ar ' (yr in ') in the above words assumes the ex- tended form ' -ar-n '. Hence the somewhat coni- mon impression that the suffix is a shortened form of harn (for haearn). bydwraig (English ' midwife is another instance Of the interchange oi m and : byd < mid ' meaning with, and gwraig a translation of wife. ceiniog is scarcely intelligible etymologically ironi the • See I h. Silvan Evans's Dictionary

 
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  218 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY coin so named ; but one is reminded by such facts " twenty-four pennyweights make one ounce ' that before 1797 the penny was a silver coin, and the term ' ceiniog ' < ' can ', bright, shining, white, is a record of the earlier currency. Cylan ' is shortened in various ways, as— cefnfor, cefnllif; cenlloer, cenllif. cyfr : an intensive prefix meaning whole, complete ; probably a variant form of ' cyfa•n ', for the liquids 'n ', and ' r', readily interchange ; e.g. cnwc and crug elydn elydr. So ' cyfrgolledig' would be 'cyfan -F golledig ' completely lost. Compare ' cyfrgrwn ' , cyfrgwbl '. erbyn : -byn is the old dative of ' pen', a head. Other traces of case inflection are— -dwy, in meud"Y, lit. servant o/ God; and Dyfrdwy. Genitive of Duw. peun-, for older peupn, in beunoeth, beunydd. Accus. of pob. gwarogaeth < older ' gwrogaeth ', and therefore the exact equivalent of 'homage' ( < Latin 'homo' , man). fel < fal < y fal < hafal, cognate with Latin ' similis '. The first syllable was corrupted, mistaken for the definite article and detached. Then the initial ' f ' was sometimes provected into ' m ', as—

 
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  DERIVATION OF WORDS " Ef a arganuu ar y nef mal fiord o syr." 219 Ystorya 1. 7.—OTHERS HAVE TRAVELLED GREAT LENGTHS IN MEANING FROM THEIR LITERAL OR ETYMOLOGICAL SENSE ; e.g.— awgrvm is eventually from Arabic " al-Khowarazmi ', the native of Khwarazm (Khiva). surname of the Arab mathematician Abu Ja'far Mohammed Ben Musa, who flourished early in the ninth century, and through the translation of whose work on Algebra, the Arabic numerals became generally known in Europe ".* Hence its first derived mean- ing is a numeral, a figure, and then it readily ac- quired the meaning of symbol, sign. brudio, brudwyr < Brutus, the eponymous ancestor of the Britons. Hence ' y Brutieu ', the Bruis, a chronicle or history of the Britons ; and as these chronicles contained much prophecy ' brudio ' has come to mean to guess future even's, to Prophesy ; and ' brudwyr ' , wisards, sorcerers. (Compare Lev. xix. 31, Isa. xix. 3, Daniel ii. 27, etc.) cawl, a South Wales term for broth, especially one in which cabbage or leeks have been boiled ; from Latin ' caulis ', a cabbage (whence English ' cauli- flower '). cyfair, an acre; from ' cyfer ', ' cyfair ', opposite ; hence ' that over against the dwelling or the town.' Com- • Quote in Evans's Dictionary, under Awgrym

 
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  220 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY pare English country' < French ' contrée' < Latin contra ', against ; also Gennan ' gegend ', a region, country. ironi gegen against, opposite. gwawd, originally praise, hence mock praise and finally mockery. lladd. cognate with English ' slay ', still retains its old meaning of to strike in *'mladd Cornpare sledge, a doublet of slay. as in ' sledge-hannner ', striking hammer. From to strike it came to mean to cut, and that is its force in ' lladd gwair ', ' lladd maun ', etc. Finally, to kill. ' Slay ' shows a parallel change of meaning. mynwent, a graveyard, a burial Place, from Latin ' monu- mentum '. Hence (i) a monument, (ii) ' a Nace of tombs ', and therefore a burial ground. rhinwedd, virtue, from ' rhin '. The vowel goes back to a Brythonic or Celtic u ' Compare Welsh ' tl and Old Irish tü ', I-atin ' tü ' ; also Welsh ' din ', ' dinas ', and Old Irish ' dün Old English ' tün ' ( > Modern English town '). The word ' rhin' is thus seen to be cognate with English ' runes ', the narne given by the ()ld English people to the alpha- bet which they brought over with them from the Continent. But its use for the alphabet is derived and secondary, for its first meaning is mystery, and the invention oi writing, the conveying of thought by means oi scratches on sword-hilts, etc., must have been one oi the greatest mysteries confronting

 
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  DERIVATION OF WORDS 221 the savage mind. A knowledge of the original meaning cannot fail to enricll and deepen the rhinwedd ', as used by force of the word rhin ', ' us to-dav. Thus ' yn rhin y gwaed ' will seem appropriately interpreted as ' in lhc mystery o/ the blood that which cannot fathomed '. 8.—OTHF.R WORDS HAVE RETAINED A MORE ORIGINAL MEANING than the terms from which they are derived, or their cognates in other languages ; e.g.— bråf, fine, handsome, like the French ' brave ', gay, 'inc, Proud. The English word ' brave ' has acquired a secondary meaning. It is possible that ' bråf ' is a Celtic word. dwl : in Modern English ' dull means not keen, blunt, foolish, a meaning heavy, but in Old English it — still preserved by the Welsh word. Compare Ger- man ' toll ', mad. sad, steady, firm, discreet, serious. The meaning alone would suggest that the word was borrowed from the English sad during the fourteenth. fifteenth, or sixteenth century, for that was the period during which the latter had the meaning of serious, trust- worthv. Prior to the fourteenth century it had its literal meaning of filled, satiated, and in the Seven- teenth century it acquired its present force of mourn/ul. 9.—CATH01.1C INFLUENCE.—We owe some words or

 
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  222 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY special meanings of words to Catholic custom ; thus Shrove Tuesday is called Dydd Mawrth Ynyd ( < Latin ' initium beginning) because it comes at the beginning of Lent. ymswyn < ym + Laiin ' signum ', the sign (of the cross), and ymgroesi point to the Catholic practice of charming oneself against evil influences by making a sign of the cross upon the body. cyngrair and cynghreirio go back to the custom of seal- ing a compact by swearing with one's hand upon holy relics (crair, creiriau). Dan ei grwys, lit. : under his cross, is a familiar ex- pression in South-west Wales for a body be- tween death and burial. The phrase is to be explained by reference to the habit of placing a cross over the corpse to prevent the approach of the Evil One, who might otherwise spirit it away. IO.—LATIN WORDS IN WELSH.—A great many were borrowed especially during the Roman occupation oi Britain. As I have dealt with this subject elsewhere, • I do not propose discussing the subject here at any length. Several words have been borrowed twice over, e.g.— Yvreharn and later, Abraham lago ( = Jacob) „ J acob The Latin Element in Welsh.

 
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  DERIVATION OF WORDS diagon and later, diacon 223 diawl diafol In Deffynniad Ffydd M. KyiT1n, the last term appears frequently, and it is invariably in the older form. effaith < Latin ' effectum ' is a very late borrowing. It does not occur in the Bible or in Dr. Davies' Dictionary of 1632. It is interesting and instruct- ive to see how the Welsh version expresses the idea conveyed by effect in the English Bible ; e.g.— Thus have ye made the commandment of God of none effect by your tradition." " Ac fel hyn y gwnaethoch orchymyrp Duw yn ddirym trwy eich traddodiad eich hun." Matt. xv. 6. " Shall their unbelief make the faith of God _ without effect ? " " A wna eu hanghrediniaeth hwy fiydd Duw yn ofer ? "—Rom. iii. 3. " The effectual fervent prayer of a righteous man availeth much." " I-lawer a ddichon taer weddi y cyfiawn." James v. 16. Ffaith is an incorrectly - formed recent borrowing, and is not found in any Welsh classic. The Latin factum ' should give us ' ffaeth ', and that form does occur in the sense of fruitful, rich, ripe. WORDS IN WELSH.—If we take literary

 
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  224 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY speech and classical writings as our standard the number of words borrowed from English will be found to small. Some well-defined phonetic principles are observed in the case of these borrowed words :— i. Initial ', 'r ' 'v- ' are usually provected into rh- ', and 'b- ' or ' m '-, as— Iloft < loft rhonc < rank bernais < varnish mentro < venture. A few instances of unprovected 'l- ' and ' v- ' occur, lifrai ' j•' and storn stawns < livery ferfaen < vervain ii. Initial 'sh- ', 's- ' (sh- sound), ' ch- ' (as in ' chance '), (as in George ') > Welsh ' si ', as— < sham < chance SIMT < sure snvrnat < journev siors < George. iia. In a few instances, they become ' s', as— som, somedigaeth (the cornmon pronunciation of the word in Gwynedd) < sham Suddas < Judas Ser-mania < Germany. iib. At the end of a syllable they pass into s :— estrvs < ostrich awrlais < horloge Siors < George. iii. Words in ' s.' + consonant develop a euphonic

 
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  DERIVATION OF WORDS 225 ysmygu < smoke ystor < store ystad < state ; or drop one of the consonants, as— mwg, myglys, < smoke. iv. Final consonant -F 's' develop an intervening vowel sound, e.g.— fhgys < figs Morus < Moors " Gwlåd y Morns y P. O. 144. socas < socks v. Initial ' th-' > 't- as no words in Welsh begin in trefa, drefa < thrave vi. Final -p, -t, -c are softened into -b, -d, -g _ ab < ape dwbled < doublet Catholig < Catholic. 12.—PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. Several prefixes and suffixes are in origin significant words, e.g.— tra is an Old Welsh word for thing, and it is still in use in Breton. It is now a substantival suffx as in ' eofndra ', ' gwyleidd-dra' ; ' -der ' is a variant form. deb is the substantive word in ' tebyg ', ' ardeb ' ; but

 
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  226 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY ' priodoldeb ', etc., it is a pure in ' purdeb ', suffix. ' newynllyd ' dyfrllyd ' , -llyd, -lyd, as in ' rhydlyd ', is probably a weakened form of ' Iled ', width. -fa, as in ' trigfa ', ' morfa ', is from an old noun ' mag , meaning Place. It is sometimes prefixed to a noun, ma mouric in Liber Landavensis. Machynlleth < ma + Cynllaith. Mallwyd < ma + Llwyd. Mathafarn < ma + tafarn. That the order of the elements constituting a com- pound varies occasionally may be illustrated from— and gwell tlas glaswellt Gwyndy Dinlle, Dinlleu , Ty Gwyn Lugodunum Lyons) Other instances of significant words used as sufflxes -wr; -wraig; -llawn, -lawn; -fawr, -gar, etc. 13.—Some suffxes have ceased to be recognised as such in Modern Welsh, and are therefore inapplicable to new words, e.g.— -is in clais < root of claddu, cloddio. Hence its first meaning of a ditch, a trench, whence its secondary force of a rivulet, a rill, a meaning seen in Dulais, Dulas, and Douglas, all meaning a black brook. For

 
(delwedd L1486) (tudalen 227)

  DERIVATION OF WORDS 227 this derived meaning compare ' nant ', which in North Wales means a valley, ravine, dingle, with the secondary force of brook, while in South Wales it is practically confined to the last-named meaning. trais < tra, traha; etc. -st, as clust, from root of clywed. 14.—Others have wandered so far from their original meaning that their force can be gathered only from a study of comparative grammar. A striking instance is the ' -ant ' of ' meddiant ', ' diffuant ', ' llwyddiant ', etc. It is the old present participle suffix which has now ceased to have any verbal function, and is not found in the conjugation of a Welsh verb. It is cognate with the participial ' -nd ' of Old English verps, now ousted by the abstract noun suffix ' -ing ' with an acquired verbal force. The old ending still remains in ' husband' (lit. ' a house-dwelling one '), ' friend ', ' fiend The termination is familiar to the student of Latin under the form ' nt as—' amant(em) ' , ' monent(em) '. 15.—Of the prefixes recognised as such in Modern Welsh some are apt to be elusive in form. Thus the intensive prefix ' en- ', as in— enfawr; enllyn en, -F llyn, a liquid) is er- in erfawr, ergryn, etc ; al- „ alaeth ; e- „ ehud < hudo, and therefore easily led, foolish ;

 
(delwedd L1487) (tudalen 228)

  228 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY effro < e -F ffraw; ewyn < e -l- gwyn ; and even an- in annog, annwn (for en -F dwfn), anaele, etc. And here it is identical in form with the negative prefix ' an- ', as— annoeth, anhawdd. di- and dy- : di- is usually negative, as—didduw, diddym, diog ; while dy- is regularly intensive, as—dyfal. di-, however, is not infrequently intensive, as— diod < di, -F od cognate with Greek hudör. dial < di, -i- gal, whence galon, gelyn. dioddef < di, + goddef. dilyn < di, -f- glynu; cf. canlyn, ymlynu. N. B.—(i) dy- is ty- in tyred < dy, -F rhed. (ii) dy- in ' dybryd ' is different: it is cognate with Greek dus- hard, ill. An- and di- as negative prefixes are not identical in function :— di- is usually a pure negative, as— didduw, Godless ; diflas, tasteless. an- affirms the opposite, as— anfad, wicked ; anair, evil report, slander ; anv.T, a wretch. Still, the distinction is not alwavs observed ; thus di»tyru ' affrms the opposite of ' ystyricd ', and ' annoeth ' is no stronger than ' disynnwyr '.

 
(delwedd L1488) (tudalen 229)

  DERIVATION OF WORDS 229 y- and e- are mere euphonic prefixes to words beginning with (i) s' 4- consonant, (ii) often ' ch ' + conson- antal ' w', and (iii) sometimes ' n- ', as—ysmygu ysbryd ( < Latin ' smoke '); (compare English ' spiritus ') ; esnnvyth (compare English ' smooth ; nadredd, nadroedd), ychwaneg; anadred Ystorya 21 ; eneidrwydd. ym-, reflexive, is a variant form of tile preposition ' am Hence such doublet forms as amgeleddu ' and ' ymgeleddu'. It is essentially reflexive in 'ymgroesi', ymswyn ', ' ymolchi ', etc. It is slightly different in ymweled % which does not mean 10 sec oneself, but rather to take oneself to see, to visit. In ' ymladd ' it suggests reciprocity—to strike to be struck, to fight. While in such a word as ' yrnbwyll' it' is almost purely formal. 16.—SUFFIXES I.ittle further need be said on the suffixes. One or two points of interest, however, should be mentioned. The ' w' before ' -r ' in ' awdwr ', ' ymherawd"T ', and some other words borrowed from Latin is due to popular etymology. The stages are Latin > ' awdr' > ' awdyr', and then, by analogy of prynwr , ' gweithiwr ', etc., ' y ' was changed into ' w '. -ad, -iad : (i) With the vowel of the preceding syllable affected or mutated—if it is mutable—they denote Person, doer. • See Prof. Anwyl's Introduction to the Gogynfeirdd.

 
(delwedd L1489) (tudalen 230)

  230 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY (ii) With the vowel of the preceding syllable un- mutated they form verbal nouns. Examples :— (i) Agent beirniad ceidwad deiliad dadgeiniad eirchiad geilwad Ileiddiad (ii) Verbal noun dyfarniad cadwad daliad dadganiad archiad gal wad lladdiad ' Cynhaliad ', supporter, in 2 Samuel xxii. 19 and Psalm xviii. 18 should be ' cynheiliad ' : " Ond yr Arglwydd oedd gynhaliad imi." -adwy and -edig are usually passive in function, e.g.— gweladwy, visible ; rhoddedig, given ; but they are active in a very few instances : dyn teimladuy, a man full o/ feeling ; calon gystuddiedig, a contrite heart. " Codi'r glicied wichiedig, Deffro porthor y ddör ddig." G. O. Calendr y Carwr. -edig is used for -adwy in— " Anfesuredig Dad."—Athanasian Creed. (The Father incomprehensible.)

 
(delwedd L1490) (tudalen 231)

  DERIVATION OF WORDS 231 -us, full of, is cognate with Latin ' -us' (as ' Pius '), Eng- lish ' -ous '. After the unrounding of the u, whereby the sound was made identical with the clear y, the latter svmbol was sometimes substituted for u in this suffl.x :— Melys-gan melldigedig y mör-fyrynnion." Deff. Fiydd 06. -hatl is a compound sufflx, < ag + u. The h is accen- tual : cryfhau, amlhau, cyfiawnhau. The accent was, according to rule, on the penult ' -ag- When the g was dropped the sylla- .bles were reduced to one, hence the apparent anomaly of verb-nouns in ' -hau ' having the accent on the ultima. The accent is on the last syllable of verbal nouns in ' -had ' for the same reason, e.g.— cyfiawnhad' <

 
(delwedd L1491) (tudalen 232)

 
(delwedd L1492) (tudalen 233)

  INDEX angeuach, SS A and o interchanged, a (rel. pron.), for 150 a, ag, after a comparative, Sl -a, fetninine termination, 72 -a, 3rd perS. sing. pres. indie. verbs accounted for, 172 .ib, 225 aberth, 41 ac, 203 .ach, 24, 69 -ach, comparative, 76 achles, 44 achos, 41 acw, 195 -ad, -iad, 24, 229 adain, 60 adar, aderyn, 60, 64 adeilad, 24-8, 45 Adjectives, 72 97; irregular, 91 of possessive, 131—0 ; post-vocalic or infixed, 137-9 adroddiad, 37 Adverbs, 191 5; from adjectives, adwaen, 1S3-4 •adwy, 230 addewid, 29 aergad, 215 aesawr, 52 •acth, .iaeth, 25 afrywiog, 210 afwyn, IS, 23 ag, 203 angau loes,

 
(delwedd L1493) (tudalen 234)

  aie, 193 al., intensive, 227 alaeth, 227 a:aile, alarch. SS Allobroges, SS Almaen, S am, 196 ambellach, 95 Amerig, S antrai, 161, 164 amryW, 160—1 amrywiaeth, 25 amser, SS, 54 amserach, SS an, yn, our, 34—5 an-, intensive, 22S an-, negative, 22S -an, 65, 66 anadl, 30 anadred, 229 amir, 22S Analogy, 12, IS-19, 59, 143, 172, 174, 178, ISI, ISO, 'S? , 200 Analytic method Of comparison, 95 •7 anerchiad, SS anfad, 22S anfesuredig, 230 anhaw•ld, 22S anhaw,ach, 92 anhydyn, 21 anian, 30, 45 anifeiliach, SS annoeth, 228 annog, 228 233 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY annwn, 22S -ant, 227 anwr, 22S Aorist, 175—7 ar, 196 aradr, 38 avail', 161 arall, 161 archiad, 230 Ardudwy, 210 arddull, 17 arf, SS arfaf, 89 arnadunt, 201 Article : definite, 1-11 ; Inst- vocalic or infixed, 2 ; in Breton, 5; in Cornish, 5; in Irish, 6; declined, 6-7 ; dual, 7 ; with provx•r names, 7-11 ; with names of rivers, 9-10; with lesu, 1 1 ; from an unaccented syllable, SO arwyddonau, 57 Aryan, 76, 99, 101, 102, 1 10, 107, 189 ; non-Aryan strain in Celtic syntax, 101 asen, 94 asglodion, 57 Auxiliary Pronouns, 130 awch, ddA"e: derivatives, com. pounds, and cognates, 210 awch,your. 135 awen, IS, 23 awdl, 65 awdwr, 229 awgrym, 219 awran, 66, awrlais, 216, 224 awyr, 30 bach, with fem. sing bachell, 6S baches, "S bachk'en, 65, 67, 70 70 bachlgyn, 70 Kala, 9 . nouns , 14 barddoniaeth, 25 barlys, 216 basged, bawd, 17, SS, 69 [O. Ir.), 76 bechgynnos, 69 beddrod, 213 Beil,l, 30 beirniad, 230 bellach, 91 ber, in composition, 211—12 Berch, y, 10 Bermo, y, S bernais, 224 Beti, 6S, 71 Beto, 68, 71 Betsan, 71 beunoeth, 21S beunydd, 21S Beynon, 3 Biii, 71 Bilo, 6S, 71 birdie, OS blodeuoedd, I'lodeuon, 57 blodeuyn, 60 Blotlwen, 212 bob yn ddau, 104 bod, and its compounds, LSI-S bodo, 69, 216 boncyff, 215 bor.l, IS, 23, 39 bore wawr, 90 bråf, 221 braich, 30 braint, 30 braith, 73 l.ran•.s, 65, 69 brawd, 52 brawd, in composition, 209 brawdle, 21 73 breichled, 217 l.renhinedd, 50 l•resych, 63, 74 5, 76, So, 9S9, 100, 225 l.reud,iwyd, 31 l•rilysyn, l.ribysyn, bricscn, 61

 
(delwedd L1494) (tudalen 235)

  INDEX 235 brictos, bricta, 73 briglyn, 70 brith, 73 briwion, briwsion, 61 brodir, 21 brodor, 56 brofydd, 58 bron, 54 brooch , 58 brudio, 219 brudwyr, 219 Brutieu, 219 Brythonic, 6, 7, 15' 29, 72-3, 145, 220 buchod, 93 buwch, 93 bwafau, 58 bwbach, 69 bwrdd, IS, 23, 39 bwystfil, 215 bychanig, 70 bychanigyn, 70 bydwraig 217 c cach (Irish), 163—4 cadi, 68 cadwad, 230 cadwyn, cadwen, IS, caer, 52 caethiwed, 41 cam, 54 16 , 19, 23 28, can, with the comparative, 70—so can, in composition. 212 can, with, in composition, 212 can, white, in composition, 212 can, hundred, 212 canig, 6S canon, 54 canrif, 23 canys, cariad, 45, 56 carol, 39 Case, 86-7, 218; in nouns, 87—90 castell, 28, 67 cath, 41, 56 Catholic influence, 221—2

 
(delwedd L1495) (tudalen 236)

  Catholig, 225 cawell, 2S, 67 cawl, 219 ceidwad, 230 ceiniog, 217-18 celain, 59 celaneddau, 57 cele (Irish), 158 cenllysgen, 64 cennad, 25 cenyw, 1S3 cerbyd, 63 cern, 54 certwyn, 215 cerydd, 41 cethlydd, 45 cilfach, 215 cilionen, 2S ; cilionyn, 28 cilydd, 15S—9 cmiaw, 32, 39 cistfacn, 21 claddedigaeth, 26 dais, 226 cleddyfawr, 52 cleiriach, 69 clod, 31, 39 clofyn, 28 ; clofen, 28 clog, 31, 39 clogan, clogen, 2S clogyn, 28 clust, 39, 227 Clychau, 57 cnau, cneuen, 61 cnod, 24 cnwd, 23 cod, 23 coedwig, 216 coelfaen, 21 coes, 45 coffadwriaeth, 26 coler, 39 colyn, 64 coiled, 31 Comparative, 76, etc. ; followed by an old ala. case, 86-7 ; from nouns, 87—90 Comparison, 75, etc. ; of Adjec- tives in •b, Adjectives endingin sonant mute 236 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY liquid, 84-5; synthetic and analytic method, 95-7 Conq»osition, chap. Niii. Compounds, chap. xiii. ; gender Concord of numeral and noun, 100 Conjunctions, 203-6 Conjunctive Pronoun, 121—5; its (!ecay, 125 corclen, 2S cordyn, 2S COrnant, 21 cornel, 39 Cornish, 5, So, SS, cots, 44, 64, 67 corsen, 64, 07 corten, 2S cortyn, IS cosyn, 64 cot, IS crallo, OS crea.iigaeth, 26 crefydd, 29, 32 croen, 63 crocs, 45 crogl'ren, 21 croglith, 23 croml'il, 39 crone•ll, crwyn, 63 crwys, 63, 222 crwysgad, 63 cryman, 41 cusan, 32 cwarre, 40 cw'i, 24 c'wcnen, 67 cwnach, 7 1 cwpan, 39 cwpla, SS cwt, IS, 24 cwytnl', 41 cyfarwyddi.l, 45 cy for cyn, 7S cyfair, 219 cyfangwl.l, 210 cyiiawnhau, 231 cytlog, 40

 
(delwedd L1496) (tudalen 237)

  cyiodiad, 25 cyfr, 21S cyfrai, 161 cyfrinach, 24 cymaint, Sl-2, 93 cymaint un, S2 cytnanfa gyngor, 22 Cymraeg, 46 Cymru, 52, 173, 215 Cymry, 52, 173, 215 cy•tnysgbla, 42 comparative, 76-SI cyn cyndcirwg, Sl cynfas, 40 Cynghanedd, 15. 112-13, 203 cynhaliad, 230 cynheiliad, 230 cynos, 69, 71 cyngor, 54 cyngrmr, 32, 222 cynghreirio, 222 cynifer, 93 cynrwg, Sl cynteddfa, 27 cystal, Sl cystuddiedig, 230 cywilyddiach, 89 Ch chwaethach, 86—7, 91 chwantach, 69 chwarel, 40 chwech, 40 chwechan, chwechyn, 71 chwedl, 16, 32, 57 chwefror, 3 chwi and ti, 113—14 chwil•lsur, 215 chwi.lrach, S; chwildro, 216 chwilfrydedd, 211 192 'ladganiad, 230 dadgeiniad, 230 da,ll, 42 daearen, 66 'laeargryn, 22 daed, 91—2 daed=cla it, 92 flagreuoedd, 57 daint, 60 daliad, 230 damwain, 32 danadunt, 201 danaf, 200 dani, 68 (lawn, 33 de, deheu, 46, 214 •del', 225-6 Declensi..n, 6—7, 21S deddyw, clefnyn, 67 deigr, 60 deilia.l, 230 Dei„, OS delw, in composition , 210 Demetian, 5, 6, 32, 36, 56, 160, 175 Denominatives, 172 derbyniaf, 3 Derivation, chap. *iii. INDEX dinas, 33, 220 l)inlle, 226 diog. 228 'li*ynnwyr, 22S 'liystyru, 22S d•nlrefnach, 69 doethineb, 29 dor, 24 Double plurals, 57 Doublets, 71 Douglas, 226 drachefn, 192 draig, 40 ; draig cynnar, 15 dreig coch, 47 d'ycin, 211 drysi, drysien, 61 number, 7, 48-9 dugum, ISS Dulais, nulxs, 226 37-41, gender 237 faith, Derivatives, chap. xiii. : of, 24-9 deryw, 1S3 (leubar, 49 denthum, 186 dewisach, 89 dewisaf, S9 di-, 22S diagon, 223 dial, 22S Dialects, 56 ; gender in, diatl, days, 57, 102 diawl, 223 dico, 69 dieuoedd, 57 diffaith, 73 diffuant, 227 diledryw, 211 dilyn, 22S dilladaa, 57 dim, 162 dull, 17, 42 dwbled, 225 dwl, 221 dwyen, 49 dwyfron, 49 awylaw, 49 dwyrain, 214 ; 14 dybryd, 228 dy•chymyg, 42 dyfarniad, 230 dyfod, Dyfrdwy, 9, 2 IS glyfredd, So dyffryn, S5 dygnach, S; dyma, 192 dyna, 192 dynan, 66, 7 t dynionach, 69, 71 dynionos, 69, 71 dynionyn, 67 dyno, 69 dynos, 65, 69 dynyn, 71 dywydd, y, 14 dwyrain 37-41 Diminutives, 64—71 suffixes, 71 ; doublets, 71

 
(delwedd L1497) (tudalen 238)

  238 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY e., intensive, 227-8; euphonic, 229 ebr, 1S9 •ed, cornparative, 76-7, SI edafedd, 59 -edig, 230 -edd, 27 ef, 115 efo, 121 effaith, 223 effro, 227 ehud, 227 ei, for eu, 136 eidunt, 143 Eitl, yr, 7, 49 eiliad, 25, 40 einwch, 142—3 einym, 142-3 eirchiad, 230 eithafion, eithafoedd elain, 59 -ell, 2S, 67 ellyn, 34 elwach, S9 Emphatic Pronouns, en (French), 191 .en, 28, 64, 66 en., intensive, 227 eneidrwydd, 229 enfawr, 227 , 54 116-21 English, 79, S7, 96, 97, 1 10, 1 13, 122, 125, 144, 14S, 151, 154 155, 156, 167, IS', 206, 216, 217, 219, 221, 224, Middle English, IOS, 154, 207 216; Old English, 59, 103, 109 153, 154, 156, 167, 194, 215, 220, 221, 227 enllyn, 227 Epic dialect, 123 er., intensive, 227 erbyn, 21S erfawr, 227 ergryn, 227 eruoed: 192 ermoed, 192 eryr, 42

 
(delwedd L1498) (tudalen 239)

  215, 229 ; 214, .es, 65, 6S esmwyth, 229 estrys, 224 estyllod, 57 euryn, 64 ewig, 52 ewyllys, 46 ewyn, 227 F, Ff f, dropped when final, 59, 169 ; restored or inserted in plurals, 57-9 .fa, 27, 226 faith, 223 fel, 21S felly, 193 Fenni, y, 10 /iend, 227 fftgys, 225 tilach, 76 tilwch, 76 fo, 115 foursome , IOS Ffreinc, 51 French, 12, 13, 96-7, 100, 106, IOS, 110, 191, 207, 216, 217, 219, 221 friend, 227 ffrwd, 34 ffurfafen, 2S ffwlcyn, 70 g > f and if, 59 •g g- > -g c, 47 69 galwad, 25, 230 Gambold, 13, 14 220 geilwad, 230 genedigaeth, 26 geneuau, 57 Gender, chap. ii. : no neut. gend. in Modern Welsh, 12, 19-20 ; 13—14 ; influence of internal 15-16, 23 4; gender affectinv: the f,.rm. IS; analogy, IS 19 : Of conq»ounds, Of derivatives, 24 •9 ; 21-3; changes of gender in M".lern welsh, 29-37 ; dialectal differ. ences, 37—4 r; pecuiiarity of gender in particular authors, 41—4 ; words varying in gender IN DEX 123, 207 239 according to meaning , 44-7; in adjectives, 71-3 Genitive, 101-4 glaswellt, 226 gogled(l, 213-14 golwg, 46 gorfoledd, 27 gorugum, ISSO Greek, 6, 7, 13, 122, grugionyn, 67 gwaethed, 93 g Waew, g way w, 34 Await h, 44 gwalch, 35 gwarogaeth, 21S gWasanaeth, 26 gwawd, 220 gwaywawr, 51 gweithred, 34 gweladwy, 230 gwele«iig, 230 gwen, 72, 212 gwcn, 212 Gwen", 69 Gwener, IS Gwentian, 5, 6, 160, 175, 176 gwewyr, 51 230 gwirioned.l, 35 gwlithos, 69 gwn, 1S3 4, 210 32, 37-4' , 56, gwneuthur, ISI-SS gwniadur, 40 gwraf, gwrthddadl, 22

 
(delwedd L1499) (tudalen 240)

  gwybed, gwybetlyn, 61 Gwyddyl, 50 gwyn, 72 gwyndy, 226 Gwyne.l,l, 37-41, 173, 224 kWYrgam, 216 haeach, 89 hafal, 21S Ilafren, 76 banes, 35 -hau, 231 haul, 35, 76 hawg, rhawg, 3 hawsach, 92 hawsaf, 92-3 hawsed, 93 hebof, 200 . heddwch, 36 heresi, 42 hesp, 76 heulwen, 212 hiraeth, 26 hob, 212; hob y deri dan 22 horob, 212 hunan, 66 hunell, 6S htmllef, 21 1 hurthgen, 70 husband, 227 hwn, 73, 74, 75 hwnna, 74, 75 ; hwnnw, 74, 75 hwyaeh, 91 hwyrach, 91 llybrids, 61 hy.lyr, 94 hyfrytach, SS Ion, 70 hynach, 92 hyn, gender of, 19 hytrach, 91 hytraf, 94 240 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY 1 prep., 19 and not tithau dithau 202 lago, 222 lanto, iawn, iawnach, iawnaf, iawned, 94 ie, '93 les", yr, 11 Ifano, 69 -iff, 3rd sing. pres. indic., 170-1 Ifi, ill, with numerals, 105—6, 163 im, 1m'. 201 Imperfect, Vast, 172—5 Imlefinite Pronoun, 160-5 Indicative, v. Verb -ineb, 29 - ; Def. Infixed Poss. Adj., 137 9 Art., 2•, l'ers. l'ron., 12,- - 30 inflection, 72-4 Interrogative Pronoun, 1450 101", 69, 71 Iolyn, 71 lorddonen. 9 Irish, 65, 00, ICO, 103, 213 Irish, Middle, SO. Irish, Old, 5, 6, 19—20, 39. 76, SO, 9.S—9, 104, 105, 10, 144, 15S, 161, 162, 214, 220 Irregular Adjectives 91-5 iso, is.ul, 195 -ith, in 3rd sing. pres. indic— of verbs, 170-1 -in, -u (Old Irish), 76 iwch, 20t lwerddon, S 9 iyrchell, OS -k.in, 190 Kymry, 53, '73

 
(delwedd L1500) (tudalen 241)

 (tudaten 240) laigitt (O. Ir.), 76 Latin, 2, 13, 30, 59, 74, SS, 106, Ito, 122, 135, 144, 145, 151, i .63' 155, 101, 177, 1S9, 205, 214, 216, 220, 222-3, 227, 229 liaison, lifrai, 224 66 Lyons, 226 liar', 213 lladd, 220 lladdiad, 230 I,landudno, 211 lias, 177 llasar, 3 llaw, in composition, 210 llawer, 93 Ileill, 95 liefydd, 58 Ileidr, 60 Ilei.ldiad, 230 Ilem, 73 Ilesnch, 90 llcuad, 25 l.ligwy, 210; I.ug, 210 Ilipryn, 70 Ilith, 53 ll.w•rcen, 70 llc,ft, 224 71 Ilonges, 71 iluchio, 93 lion, IS lluwch, 93 llwf, 5S ilwg, in composition, 210 llwyddiant, 227 llwyn, 44, 54, 55 llwyth, 54, 55 -llyd, -lyd, 226 INDEX 241 llyfon, llyfau. 58 llygod, liygoden, 61 llym, 73 llyma, 192 llys, hall, llys, false, 212 llys, slime, 212 llys, a herb, 212 llythyr, 56 macrell, 2S mach, 76 Machynlleth, 226 mae'l, mae fel, 193 mai, 205 ma mouric, 226 malwod, malwoden, 61 Mallwyd, 226 Mathafarn, 226 mau, mine, 140-1, 144 16, 36, 212 Medizeval Welsh, 7. Welsh meddiant, 227 Menai, 9—10 mentro, 224 mer, in composition, 211—12 merched, 62 Metonymy, 43, 44 meu, 140—1 meudwy, 21S meuvet, 142 mi, 110-12 milgi, 216 minnef, 125 mlS, 19 modrwy, 69, 216—17 modryb, 69 moes, 42 Mood, 7. Verb mor + positive, 95-6 morfa, 27 Morus, 225 morwyn, 53 multiplicative method of enumer• ation, 99 mutation, initial. 47, 48; of vowels, 72-4 mwy, mwyaf in comparison, 96—7

 
(delwedd L1501) (tudalen 242)

  mwyach, 91 Mwythig, Y, S mygdarth, 216 myglys, 225 myn, 19S myned, I Sr—SS mynwent, 28, 220 n: excrescent, 217 ; dropped, 7S na, nag, after a comparative, St nad, 193 nage, 193 nail', 159—60 nail, y, 6, 160 nant, 227 nas, 193 neb, 162 Ned, 3 nef, gender of, 20, 37 ; nefoedd, 62 nege_seuau, negeseuon, 57 neidr, 60 Neil, 3 nerob, 212 nestling , 64 Neuter Gender, 12, 19—20 newyddach, 95 ickname, 3 nid, 193 ms, 193 nos da, nos dawch, 14 Number, in nouns, chap. iii. ; Dual, 4S-9; Plural, 49 ; words that have changed their plural fortn, 50—3 ; words with two or more plural forms, 53; dialectal plural forms, 56 ; double plurals, 57 ; incorrect plurals, 62 Nutnerals, 98-109 nyth, 40, 56 o o, 197 och, 76 .o%-h (Breton), 76 oddi, 197, 214 242 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY oenan, 66 oenig, 68 .og, 65, 69 ohonof, ohonadunt, 201 Olwen, 212 olynol, 211 011, 162—3 onadunt, 201 onid, 193 orig, 6S, 71 orloes, 216 os, 205 -os, diminutive, 65, 69 -os, old adjectival suffix, 72 pa, py, 145-8 pabell, 63 padiw, pyciiw, 138, 147 paham, 147 pahar, 147 pan, 149, 203-4 parag, 147 parchell, porchell, 2R, 67 Parry, 3 Participle, equivalents, 166—S fas (French), 162 pawb, 101, 163—4 pe, 2c6 37' 57, 62, 63 Fegi , 6S ; Peggy, 6S pelen, 67 penaduriaf, 90 pendramwnwgl, 211 penglog, 22 penllorcan, 70 pennill, 40 perffaith, 73 person, 37, 54 Personal Pronouns, 110—15 1k2rsonification, 12 pet names, 65 phrase units, 2—4 puau, 144 pibell, 68, 71 piben, 71 pla, 42

 
(delwedd L1502) (tudalen 243)

  plant, plentyn, 61 ; plantach, 69 ; plantos, 69 plat, 37 [215-16 Pleonastic forms, 49 ; compounds, pluen, 28 plufyn, 28 (Gwneuthur, 187 -S PI ulrrfect Of l)yfod, Myned, and Plural, 7. Number PO, 149, 194, 21S pob, 105, 163-4 pobl, 43 poblach, 69 point (French), 162 Pont, 16 poplys, 216 porchell, 28 porth, 16, 44 Positive Degree, 75 Possessives, chap. viii. ; Adjec- tives, 1314); Pronoun, 140—4 Post-vocalics: Possessive Adjec- tive, 137—9; Def. Art., 2; Pro- noun, 125—30 Prefixes, 227-30 Prepositions, 196—9 ; Pronominal, 199-203 priddell, 68; priddellan, priddellig, profedigaeth, 27 Pronouns: Auxiliary, '30; Con. junctive, 121—5; Indefinite, 160- 5; Interrogative, 1450 ; Nor- mal, 110—15; l'ossessive, 140-4; Yost-vocalic or Infixed, 125—30; Reciprocal, 158-60; cated or Emphatic, 116.21 ; Relative, 149-57 ; weakness of the Relative, 153 4; growth of the English Relative, 154-5 pryfed, 62 prynedigaeth, 26 pwtog, 69 pwy, 145-9 pwyth, 55 py, pa, 145—S pysg, fpysgod, pysgodyn, 61 pythe nos, 59 -que (Latin), 122 INDEX 243 raco, 195 Rapt, the, 3 Reciprocal Pronoun, 158—60 Reduplicated or Emphatic PIO- noun, 116-21 Relative Pronoun, 149—57 ; weak- ness of, 153-7 ; growth of the English Relative, 154—5 Reversion, 59 [guished, r 64-5 rhai, 3 ; rhai and rhyw distin- rhawg, hawg, 3 rhedyniach, 69 rhetfyn, 67 rheitiach, ; rheitied, rhiain, 60 rhinwedd, 220 rhisgl, 65 rhoces, 3 rhonc, 224 rhonell, 68 rhuddgoch, 216 rhyfel, 40 rhyfyg, 43 Rhyl, y, 3 rhyw and rhai rhywun, rhywrai, 164—5 roessum, ISI s s, pronominal, 125—30 sad, 221 sail, 43 sant, 53 sect, 43 sen (O. Ir.), 76 Sermania, 224 stawns, 224 Singulatives, 60-1 siniu (O. Ir.), 76 siom, 224 Siors, 224 siwr, 224 siwrnai, 37, 224 socas, 225 sorth, 74 slklan, 66 Subjunctive, present, ISO,

 
(delwedd L1503) (tudalen 244)

  1 SS Suddas, 224 Suffixes, 230-1 35 Superlative, equal to Eng. Com• parative, 87 ; Superlatives from nouns, S7-g:» swper, 40 swrth, 74 sydd, 150—1, sylfaen, 43 synnwyr, 43 Synonyms, 208 195-7 Synthetic Method of Comparison, -t, final in 3rd plural of verbs dropped, 161—70 tafarn, 40 tafod, 43 tangnefedd, 27 talcen, 70 tau, thin.', 140L1, 144 [1 22-3 -tau, in Conjunctive Pronouns, taw, conjunction, 206 tawlbwrdd, 215 t,' (Greek), 123 teiau, 57 te•imladwy, 230 teios, 69 Tems, 9 tennyn, 67 Tenses, v. Verb terfysg, 43 testafen, 2S testament, 2S teu, 140—1 Teuton, 210, 214 this and that inflected, 75 ti, di, 112—3; ti and chwi, 113—14 tie, 40 tir, 44; tiredd, 50 to, 37 him, to her, to its, to ; how expressed in Welsh, 137—9 Tom, Twin, IS ious de•u.r, -tra, 225 traha, 227 244 WELSH GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY trais, 227 tref, 59 trefa, 225 troed, 41 trom, 72 trummos, trumma, 72 trwm, 72 tud, 214—5; in composition, 210 Tudno, 210 Tudur, 210 Tw,n, IS twym, 74 ty, 44 tymhestl, 65 tymor, 19 tyred, 22S tywysen, 64 uchaf, 93 uched, 93 (of, 172-4 ucho, uchod, 195 -ud, .ut, 2nd sing. Impf., history udunt, 202 -us, 231 uwch, 93 Verb, 166 ; 3rd person sing. pres. Past Impf. Indic., 170-2 ; sing., 172-4; Past Imperf. 174-5; Aorist or pre- Flu. , terite, 175-9; 1m •erative, 179- SO: Subjunctive •resent, ISO. Verb-noun, 167—9 vinda, 72 vindos, 72 w, inorganic, 93—4, Wales, 215 Welsh, Medieval, 1, 3, 4, 16, 31' 34, 60, 72, 75, 78, 94, 106, 113, 119, 121, 125, 127, 131, 134, 146, 143, 137, 140, 142, 144, 151, 152, 153, 160, 174, 175' ISO, IS', ISO, 187, 192 197, 201, 202, 212 wrthyd, 202 wrthyf, 200 wrthyfi, 201 wy (diphthong), 74 wy (hwy) (pryoun), 115 wynt, hwynt, 115 wyneb, 55 wyniach, 71 wynos, 69, 71 V,' yre, 2 to wys, ; 7 y. euphonic, 224-5, 229 y for fy, 132 y, yr, def. art., chap. i. : y (rel. pron.) for a, 150 y, yr, conj., 194, 205 ychen, 62 yd, ydd, 145, 149-53 -ydd, 29 yngo, yngod, 195 ym, reflexive, 229 ymadrodd, 44 ymbwyll, 229 ymddiofrydu, 211 ymennydd, 211 ymgroesl, 222 ymherawdwr, 229 ymladd, 229 ymswyn, 222 ymweled, 229 yn for fy, 133 ; yn, our, 134 -yo, 64, 67 yn, predicative, 191 yn, prep., with nouns of time or place in c- or g-, 19S-9 yntef, 124 ynyd, 222 ynysedd, 50 ysbryd, 55 62 ysgythrnog, 214 ysmygu, 225 yspaen, S ystad, 225 ystor, 225 ystlys, ysywaeth, 211 yvreham, 222

 
(delwedd L1504) (tudalen 245)

FOR STUDENTS AND CRITICS Y FLODEUGERDD NL-WYDD Casgliad o Gywyddau•r Bedwaredd Ganrif ar meg, y Bymthegfed, Unfed ar Bymtheg. Wedi eu Golygu *yda Nodiadau gan W. J. GRUFFYDD, M.A. ac mea•n Cymrae. Bcvrdd Canola. Cymr€i,•-. Being an Anthology Of the " Cy•yddau " Of the nth, '5th and 16th centuries. Printed on deckled-edge IAper, Cr. Svo, 262 pp., Canvas Cloth, 51— net. THE WELSH LADDER Price 2, - net. D. JAMES (defynno<) See-.e•tary to the Welsh Language Society. Being an Introduction to Welsh Conversation for Scholars in the Upper Standards of Elementary Schools, County Schools, and Evening Classes, and for Private Students. With copious Exercises. Containing over 50 Illustrations, mostly full-page. Welsh-English and English-VVelsh Vocabulary. Lessons in Welsh Granunar and Cotnposition By D. W. LEWIS and E. PEARSON JONES, M.A. For County Schools, P. T. Centres, etc., and Evening Schools. SPECIAL FEATURES. . Elements Of Welsh ;rammar, suniciently advanced to meet the re- quirements or the Junior ('ertiiicate Of the Central Welsh Board and the Preliminary Certificate Examination. 2. A Series of over So graduated Exercises. in which all past work is being continually revised. Sets Of Examination Questions selected from past papers, etc. 3. The I —'itin Forms Of a large number Of Welsh words. A fall Vocabulary and Appendices. 5. Full Cloth Boards, 160 pp. net.

 
(delwedd L1505) (tudalen 246)

 
(delwedd L1506) (tudalen 247)

  A HISTORY OF ENGLAND AND WALES 1. —'FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO 1485. With Maps, Plans; Tables, Dates, and Notes on the Chief Movements and Characters By HOWELL T. EVANS, M.A. St. John's College, Camirifixre. Price 2/6 net. THIS Book has been specially prepared for students preparing for the Central Welsh Board Examinations, Welsh Matriculation, preliminary Certificate, Certificate, and other similar examinations. Though paying special attention to Wales, it does not do so at the expense of English history. At the end of each chapter elaborate notes are given of persons and movements. These notes are intended to emphasise the features of the reign, and to give those supplementary details which cannot well be introduced into the body of the work. Several experts in history, and teachers of the subject, Who have had the opportunity of looking over the proofs of the book, speak in ex. ceedingly high tern's of the success of the author in his latest work, and the l'ulilishers have every conf"lence in l.ringing this volume under the notice of Ilead Teachers of all classes of Schools and Colleges. ANALYSIS OF THE HISTORY OF WALES By HOWELL T. EVANS, M.A. Cantab. and For the use of Students in Colleges, County Schools and P. T. Centres. HE first work of the kind in connection with Welsh History. Contains 6 new Maps, illustrating inter- esting developments in the History of the lirincipality. IN USE 'N NEARLY ALL THE COUNTY SCHOOLS {N WALES. A Great Boon to Teachers and Students Of Welsh History. Price 2/6 net.   A Dictionary of Eminent Welshmen By T. R. ROBERTS (Asapll) Author Of Edmund prys," The Proverbs Of Wales," etc. ONCISE Biographical Sketches of about two c thousand Welshmen from all parts of the World (1700—1907), eminent as Poets, Preachers, Warriors, Statesmen, Editors, Lawyers, Business Men, Artists, Doctors, Educationists, etc., etc. A special feature is the inclusion of Welshmen from America and the Colonies. The work contains about two hundred half-tone Portraits, mostly full-page, from selected photographs. Beautifully printed on antique paper, super-royal 8vo. 10 6 A MOST SUITABLE BOOK AS A PRESENT Self-made Welshmen By T. R. ROBERTS (Asapll) ON TAINS notable examples of Industry, Per- severance, and Pluck, all drawn from the pages of Welsh Biography. A splendid Book to place in the hands of the youths of Wales. Crowli Svo, pp., illustrated. Cloth, 16 net.

 
(delwedd L1507) (tudalen 248)

  Arthurian Romance from the Mabinogion (THE Y SEINT GRE-AL GRAIL) Werin Ys*ol By J. M. EDWARDS, M.A. Headmaster of Holywell County Sctool. Very suitable for Upper Standards and County Schools. ILLUSTRATED BV T. PRVDDERCH. With a very complete Glossary of difficult words. Price, I/- net. REVIEWS Dylai gael ei ddarllen gan bob plentyn, pe Ond er mwyn yr iaith yn umg. By.ld ei gafiheliad yn ychwanegtad at gyfoeth pob ysgol Reprints of C.W.B. Examination Papers The following are now ready : MATHEMATICS: Junior, 6d. net. Senior, 6d. net. Answers, each net. HISTORY : Junior, 6d. net. Sen•or, 6d. net. LATIN : Senior, 6d. net. WELSH : In Preparation. OUTLINE ATLAS DR EPARED for the yse of Upper Standards and Students working for the C. W. B. and Government Examinations. Consists of 32 Maps, quarto size, each perforated. Price, 8d. net.

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